I. Introduction
Honey bees are attacked by a number of enemies and take a heavy toll of bee life and their destructive activities result in desertion of hives by bees. Bee enemies are described under two categories namely insects and vertebrates. The control measures for each of these pests is different as the nature of their damage is different.
ll. Insects
Insects like ants, wasps, wax moths etc, pose a serious threat to bees. Ants take virtually everything in the hive, wasps and hornets generally cause the bees to abscond. The wax moth causes damage both to bee-colonies and to the bee products. A brief account of these enemies, with possible suggestions to reduce the loss and to acquaint the bee-keepers with knowledge which may be needed any time, is given here.
1. Ants
Various species of ants i.e.. Conponotus compressus (carpenter ant), Dorglus labiatus (red ant), Monomorium and Solenopsis spp (fire ant), have been reported causing problem to both traditional beekeeping with Apis cerana and to modem beekeeping with Apis mellifera.
Damages
Ants are among the most common predators of honey bees in India. Ants being highly social insects, they attack the hive en- masse, taking virtually everything in them. They take away honey, brood, pollen, dead bees and other debris. In addition to this destruction, they also cause nuisance and sometimes pain to the beekeeper as well.
Control
Some of the precautions to reduce the damage caused by the ants are given here.
(i) Maintain the bee colony sufficiently strong enough. Usually populous strong colony succeeds in keeping the ants at bay.
(ii) As the ants live in underground colonies, their nests should be destroyed by fumigating them with two to four table-spoons of carbon disulphide or by pouring into them 9 -10 litres of BHC suspension or 0.1 % Aldrin emulsion or 0.33 kg of 40% Chlorodane (wettable powder) in 15 litres of water and scaling them with mud. It should preferably be applied at a time when the bees are not active.
(iii) Bee colonies can be kept free from ants by placing the hives on stands with their legs in earthen cups containing water. Since bees mostly drink from it, the water should be pure.
(iv) The legs of the hive stand may be painted with used engine oil or wounded round with tape soaked in corrosive sublimate to serve as a good repellent for ants. This needs renewing once or twice a month.
(v) A newly installed bee-hive should be visited frequently to check the invasion of ants.
2. Wasps
Several species of wasps, like Vespa orientals (yellow wasp), Vespa auraia (golden wasp), Vespa magnifica (black wasp), etc. are found in Indian plains and hills. The life cycle of the wasps mostly starts with fecundate female wasps, which starts making new nests in spring. The worker wasps, on emergence help their mothers and take over the field work, since wasps too are social insects like bees. The nest becomes populous during the monsoon and autumn. The population of a nest is at its peak during autumn. At tile end of autumn, all types of wasps, except fecundate females die out. The fecundate females pass their winter under the cover of nooks and crevices and start building nests in coming spring.
Damages
Wasps are predaceous by nature and catch bees from blossoms or at the entrance of a hive. Weak colonies become their special targets. The attacking behaviour of the wasps is described in three phases (i) hunting phase, (ii) slaughtering phase and (iii) occupation phase.
Hunting phase
Initially a hunting phase is observed, when the wasps capture the slow -flying bees or one bee at a time. It happens usually near the entrance of a weak colony's hive or bee flying near the flowers to collect pollen or nectar.
Slaughtering phase
If the colony is found to be weak one, a slaughtering phase sets in. A few wasps 30 -50 in number attack a weak colony en-masse, using their strong jaws to maul the bees and dropping the dead on the ground. If this phase continues long enough the colony under attack would have lost most of its defender workers. The colony becomes very weak to resist any attack by the wasps.
Occupational phase
In a very weak colony, the wasps invade and occupy the inside of the hive. They consume, all honey, brood and carry them to their own nest.
Control
The following precautionary measures are suggest to reduce tile risk of wasps.
(i) The best method to get rid of wasps is to kill the fecundate females early in the spring, when they start making new nests. A part time workers team can be arranged by co-operatives or big apiaries or government, for killing queen wasp in an area before the breeding season.
(ii) Destroying all the nests of the wasps in the vicinity of the apiaries. This can be done in two ways, one by burning with kerosene torch and second by fumigation or spraying or dusting insecticides like 5% benzene hexachloride emulsion or 10% D.D. T. Sometimes it is difficult to find the nest of the wasps, since wasps can fly to a longer distance and come from a considerable distance in search of bees. This creates problem in finding the nest of the wasps. A simple technique to find the nest is to capture the wasp, tie a 15 cm long thread around its thorax and then it is released and followed till it reaches the nest. Then the nest is destroyed as mentioned above.
(iii) An effort to kill the wasps at the entrance of the hive with the help of fly flappers or wooden strips is sometimes useful in the early spring. But generally it is time consuming and laborious.
3. Wax moths
A number of moths, like Galleria melionellas (the greater wax- moth), Achroia grisella (the lesser wax-motIl), Ephestia kuhniella (flour moth), Ephestia cantelia (fig moth), Plodia inter-punctela (meal moth), etc, are noticed in combs, but their damage is occasional. The greater wax -moth is by far the most serious threat to combs, while the lesser wax -moth is a comparatively minor pest. The life cycle of the greater wax-moth may be completed in six -weaks to six months. This depend upon climate temperature and nature of the natural food. At normal temperature of 30 -35 0 C, an egg may become an adult in about seven weeks. The pest remains active from March to October. In localities with comparatively warm winters, all stages of the pests are met within hive through out the year. The most probable period of emergence of adults is in March and April. The males and females mate within a day and female then enters the hive usually at night and lay egg-clusters in hidden places like cracks and crevices and sometimes in open surface.
The incubation period of eggs at 350 C is about a week. Young caterpillars are exceedingly active and cause much damage. How long they live in caterpillar condition depends upon temperature and abundance of proper food. It may vary from a month to five months. The pest hibernates in store combs (honey combs) in the caterpillar form and pupal form. Depending upon the temperature, the adult moths may emerge in a week or after two months.
Damages
Wax moths are most destructive in warmer areas. The preferred food of the wax moth larvae is the larval skins and the pupal cases that line the brood cells and pollens. In the process of securing these portions of the comb the larvae tend to destroy the whole comb with bored pathway, and leave a trail of faecal matter and webbing. The grater wax moth larvae do even greater damage when they pupate. Its caterpillar eats old combs, propolis, pollen, cast larval skins and other such proteinaceous matter, but they cannot live on pure bee wax. They have no use of honey or brood but the bees emerged from such larva infected hives are mostly malformed. Larvae may tunnel through newly built comb, but gradually shrink in size and eventually are starved to death because they cannot digest pure beeswax.
Almost all colonies of Apis indica, Apis dorsata, Apis flora and Apis mellifera are infested with this pest chronically and the caterpillars actively sabotage or undo the work of colonies continuously. They suddenly acquire a dangerous importance during a dearth period and the monsoon and make the colonies desert their nests. The deserted colonies become further source of infection for newly established colonies or swarms.
The first indication of the entry of the female moth and development of the larvae in the hive or comb is the presence of small masses of minute particles of wax outside the holes of the hive. Later, faint webbings are perceptible over some cells of the comb. When infestation has progressed far enough, silken tunnels with caterpillars wriggling in them are noticed and eventually the whole comb is a mass of webbings in which the excreta of the caterpillars is enmeshed. In severe cases of infestation, further brood rearing is topped, field work is virtually suspended and the colony deserts.
Control
No practical chemotherapeutic measures exist for controlling the wax moth in live honey bee colonies. Some of the preventive measures are given here.
(i) A newly established colony can be kept free from infection by the vigilant beekeepers, who do not allow culprit female moths to enter the colony, by reducing the size of the entrance gate. The bee keeper should be skilled enough to remove the caterpillars and keep the hive clean by removing debris consisting of gnawed pieces of comb, fallen wax scales, loose pollen pellets on the bottom board.
(ii) Strong populous, colonies are more liable to resist the pest attack. Weak colonies should be strengthened by adding brood frames and their queen replaced.
(iii) The hive resistance can be increased by keeping the hive tight fitting and by obliterating the cracks and crevices with a mixture or rosin and puttie used for fixing glass panes or moulding clay or bee wax.
(iv) All tile combs which the bees do not cover with brood should be removed particularly during dearth period.
(v) All space drawn combs should be kept in empty hive bodies in tiers and closed both at the bottom and top. The joints of hive bodies should be covered by gummed tape or wet clay and the stacks of 4 -5 hive bodies kept moth proof. The new stacks should be disinfected with sulphur fumes by burning sulphur over live charcoal at the rate of one ounce for 3.5 cubic feet space. Fumigation has to be repeated at fortnightly interval.
(vi) After fumigation, the combs should be stored in moth tight hive bodies and para-dichlorobenzene (PDB) crystals, 103/2 cub. feet, or naphthalene flakes should be spread over the top.
III. Vertebrates
Various kinds of animals like toads, frogs, snakes, lizards, bee-eating birds, monkey, badgers, bear etc are enemies of bees and bee colonies. The destructive role of these amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals is described below.
1. Amphibians
Amphibians like Hufa melanastictus (toads) and Rana limnoclzaris (frog) often attack and cause a substantial fall in colony population. The detection of this problem generally requires close observation. When toads and frogs are preying heavily on the bee colonies, they scatter in front of the hive entrance their faecal dark brown droppings. If these dry faecal deposits are spread apart with a twig or brush, the remains of bee parts can be seen, confirming the severe attack on bees by frogs and toads.
Damages
Continuous predation by toads and frogs, results in a loss of colony strength. Some colonies with moderate or relatively large worker populations can withstand the predation and subsequently recover their full strength. Weaker colonies are at considerable risk, The attacking patterns of toads and frogs are quite similar. On arriving at the colony, the amphibians wait in the vicinity of the hive entrance, preying on passing bees. Colonies close to the ground provide easy access to the predators, for which guard bees at the hive entrance are easy preys. If the attackers are small enough to squeeze through the hive entrance of a relatively weak colony, the outcome is of devastating bee colony.
Control
In some circumstances predation on honey bees by amphibians cannot be overlooked. The beekeeper should not look on the problem as a minor one. Some suggested control measures are:
(i) placing the hives on stands 40 -60 cm high is usually sufficient as a protective measure.
(ii) where large numbers of the predators tend to congregate near the colony, fencing it with fine mesh may be found necessary, and
(iii) other methods such as trapping, baiting or poisoning have not been recommended.
2. Reptiles
Reptiles like snakes, lizards, geckos etc. are the most commonly found damaging commercial apiaries. Gecko gecko (tokag) is about 35 cm in length, lizards measuring about 25 cm from head to tail. Smaller lizards, such as the Hemidactylus frebatus (gecko) often hide in the empty spaces between the outer and inner cover of the hive. It sometimes stray very close to the hive or accommodates itself comfortably between the lid and the hive body.
Damages
Arboreal reptiles such as many geckos and snakes can attack bees either near the hive entrance or at the limbs of flowering trees visited by foragers. Lizards accommodated inside the hive find very convenient in feeding on bees indefinitely and causes the sudden loss of the queen from weak colony. Lizards prefer dead bees, they will eat live ones as well. A worker bee, acting as a scavenger, will pounce on an old, lazy or sick bee and try to tear the victim's wings. While this action is in progress, the lizard will rush and lick both of them up with its sticky tongue.
Control
Some preventive measures are given here
(i) The beekeeper can do little to prevent the loss of foragers to the highly mobile arboreal reptiles, usually well hidden in the trees except to destroy as many of them as he can when he encounters them.
(ii) Placing the hive on stand 60 cm high from the ground or arranging hanging hives in the apiary, is relatively safe from the reptiles attacking.
(iii) Coating the legs of the stands with spent engine oil or grease can prevent the reptiles from climbing up to the hive entrance.
(iv) A well-kept bee yard, frequently mowed, without dense bushes, shrubs and tall grasses, that offer safe hiding for the predators, has less chances of suffering losses from reptiles.
(v) No salable chemical control of reptiles is available for use in an apiary.
3. Birds
Birds, which have been listed as attacking honey bees in India includes, Merops apiaster (bee-eater), Merops orientals, Dicrurus macrocercus (king crow), Cypselus spp (swifts), Lanius spp (shrikes) Picus spp(peckers), lndicatoridae sp. (honey guide), etc. They visit apiaries occasionally on cloudy days, and prey upon bees. The heavy traffic of bees flying in and out of the hives of commercial apiaries ovide an exceptional opportunity for insectivorous birds. Therefore, a large number of birds are attracted by this situation.
Damages
The level of damage caused by the apivorous birds varies considerably. An attack by a single bird or by a few together rarely constitutes a serious problem. When a relatively large flock descends upon a few colonies or an apiary, a substantial decline in the worker population may be observed. The degree of damage to the commercial apiaries by predatory birds depend upon the number of predators and intensity of the attack. The mere presence of a few predators in apiaries engaged in queen-rearing can inflict serious losses. The bee eaters sit on tree or telegraph wires near an apiary and pick the bees on the wings and do much harm. Sometimes as many as 40 bees have been found in the stomach of a bird.
Control
Some of the precautionary measures are described here.
(i) While beekeepers regard insectivorous birds as pests, sometimes serious, other branches of agriculture generally do not consider them as their enemies. In fact, birds that prey on insects are mostly considered to be beneficial for farming. They help in the control of insect pests. For this reason, therefore, no attempt is made to solve the apiary's bird problems by mass killing of the bird predators.
(ii) Where heavy predating birds on apiary bees tends to occur at fixed period, may be period of migration of birds, the most practical means of solving the problem is to avoid the birds, by relocating the apiary temporarily, until the birds migration period is over.
(iii) Sometimes scaring the predating birds away from apiaries by shooting at them with sound producing riffle is suggested.
4. Mammals
Many group of mammals can be considered as enemies of the honeybees. They, generally prey on colonies for honey and brood eating. Sometimes the attacks are purely accidental or the result of animal curiosity. Some important mammals causing damage to the bee colonies, specially to apiaries which are placed in or near forests and are not properly protected are monkeys, bear, badgers and man.
a. Monkey
In several parts of the country, monkeys have been found opening the hives and consuming honey and brood. As a result, frames are destroyed and colonies abscond. Scaring the monkey away is the only recommended control measure for apiary.
b. Bears
Bears are undoubtedly the most important mammalian bee pest. The best known bear pest are the black bear, Euarctos americanus.
Damages
Bears cause much damage to bee hives as they seek honey and brood. They repeatedly visit an apiary, destroying one or more hives with each visit. They tip hives over and tear them apart to get to brood and honey frames, which they carry a short distance away before feeding.
Control
Some important suggestion to prevent the bear's entry into the apiary are mentioned here.
(a) The best protection against damage is a sturdy electric fence around the apiary. Fences must be electric charged, and should be built before bear damage begins.
(b) Another effective control measures is to place bee hives on sturdy bear proof platforms elevated above bear height.
(c) Moving bee hives away once an apiary has been visited by a bear.
(d) Shoot and trap the bears but it has only limited success and must be done by government officials.
c. Badgers
Badgers are omnivorous, which means they eat almost everything, including bees. The honey badgers, Mellivora capensis, can easily tear a man made hive apart. It is found in western India and many other parts of the world.
Damages
The badgers, mostly destroy the hives, lying near the ground surface. They rarely cause any trouble to bee colonies. They rarely cause any trouble to bee colonies. They prefer to digging out wasps even when the badger's den is in the apiary. When it begins to damage the colony it takes only a few seconds to damage the bee colony completely. It is known as one of the most destructive enemies of honey bee colonies.
Control
The important suggestions to prevent the damage caused by badgers are given here.
(a) Fence the apiaries with great care, burying the fence at least 61 cm below the ground to prevent the badgers digging beneath it.
(b) Place the hive high in the air beyond the approach of the predator.
(c) Remove the badgers from the area of the apiary.
d. Man
The worst of all the enemies of the honey bees is man. In his attempt to improve his living conditions, man has caused and is still causing, great damage to existence of bees in nature. Man is clearing forest lands, clearing all bushes by burning, killing of bees by honey hunters, killing of bees by burning bushes, deliberately burning of bees so that man can live peacefully and spraying insecticides on bee pasturages are some of the unwanted activities of the man.
IV. Conclusion
Regular inspection of the bee colony and adopting preventive measures to ward of the pests is necessary for the successful maintenance of the apiary. Use of insecticides must be done judiciously as the honey bees also can get affected by the same. What is more important is a clear understanding of the pest problem for the bees. Once a systematic understanding is achieved each beekeeper finds his own way to control the pests.
Citrus is a perennial crop. As long as the trees remain healthy, they can flower and fruit for years on end, some times for as long as twenty or thirty years (Mazhar and Nawaz, 2006). However, if the trees are not maintained at a proper size, the height and canopy shape of mature trees in a citrus orchard will not be uniform and the branches will be too crowded. In a crowded orchard, disease and pests can spread quickly. Fruit quality tends to be poor, and trees may not bear fruit every year. A proper training and pruning program is essential for the maintenance of a healthy and productive orchard. 
