Saudi team praises poultry facilities

"Standard of poultry facilities in Pakistan is as good as in any European country," this was stated by a four-member Saudi Food and Drug Authority (SFDA) technical delegation in a meeting with senior officials of Ministry of National Food Security and Research (MNFSR) presided over by Seerat Asghar Secretary MNFSR here on Friday.
The Saudi Technical delegation had earlier visited different poultry farms to inspect standard of poultry facilities. The delegation also visited National Reference Laboratory for Poultry Diseases and National Veterinary Laboratory situated at National Agricultural Research Center (NARC), Islamabad and expressed satisfaction over their standard. It is to be noted that Saudi Arabia had suspended import of hatching eggs and day-old chicks from Pakistan in 2005-06 due to eruption of Bird Flu disease in Pakistan.
During the meeting, Seerat Asghar apprised of delegation about various preventive and precautionary measures undertaken by Pakistan to successfully contain H5NI virus in the country since 2005. The Secretary also apprised that a successful "National Programme for the Control and Prevention of Avian Influenza" was launched for control of the disease. The Secretary also informed about various measures undertaken complying with international standards to modernise poultry industry infrastructure and facilities. Asghar further stated that due to concerted efforts and hard work Pakistan declared freedom from Bird Flu disease with effect from September 22, 2008, and since then poultry industry has been growing at an annual rate of 13%, hoping that Saudi Arabia may soon restore import of poultry products from Pakistan.
The dignitaries on both sides also agreed that there is a great potential of trade in the areas of poultry and livestock between the two countries. Both sides also agreed that there is a need to further strengthen bilateral trade between the two brotherly countries.-PR

Source: Business Recorder

How can you tell if a chicken is happy?

By Harry Wallop

A scientist claims caged hens live better than free-range birds. Has common sense flown the coop?

At first, the sheer scale is hard to fathom. I can see yard after yard of metal and hardly any animals. But the noise is unmistakable: a steady clucking sound, which rumbles throughout the enormous building.

It is only when your eyes adjust to the low level of light that you slowly notice the birds. Initially, just a few hundred and then more and more. I am standing on a metal gangway – like the ones you find in high security prisons. On either side of the narrow walkway, hens are packed in groups of 60 to each “cage”. The cages stretch for 330 feet to the end of the shed, and they run along each of the eight different storeys in the shed. I am on the highest level and can glimpse thousands of feathers and glinting eyes beneath my feet. It is unnerving.

In total, there are 76,000 hens in this shed. This is just one of the five sheds that Phill Crawley, a ruddy-faced, second-generation poultry farmer, owns in Leicestershire. And, alongside the barns dotted among the orchards and fields, are thousands upon thousands more chickens.

That is because Sunrise Eggs, his family company – responsible for 2 per cent of the 9.3 billion eggs laid in Britain every year – produces free-range as well as “colony” eggs.

Colony, or “enriched cage”, used to be known as battery eggs, but the European Union last year forced all farmers to move to the higher-welfare colony system, after years of wrangling with the industry. Under the old system, you were allowed to keep 18 hens in one square metre – about the size of the floor of a telephone box. The new system allows for 13 hens in the same area.

To my eye, this existence still looks pretty miserable. The hens never leave their cage, never see daylight and cannot walk more than a few feet back and forth. Crawley says matter of factly: “They’ve never known any different.”

He has allowed me in to inspect his farm after a leading chicken expert at the University of Bristol, Prof Christine Nicol, suggested that many free-range hens were no happier than those in enriched cages.

“It looks horrendous. It looks like a factory, your worst nightmare of an industrial intensive system,” Prof Nicol said. “But when you look inside the cages, I’m not saying it’s great… but the birds have space, they have a perch, they have got things to scratch on.”

Crawley is rightly proud of his well-run farm. His colony sheds are industrial, but along with that comes a surprisingly low level of smell and dirt – the chicken muck is taken away on a conveyor belt every two days, keeping the floors of the cage surprisingly clean. He plucks a hen from the cage and lets me inspect it closely: its feathers are glossy and its eyes are bright.

“I don’t think any system is perfect,” he says. “Each system has its good points as well as its not-so-good points.”

A few years ago it seemed all the supermarkets would join the likes of Marks & Spencer and become free-range only. “But then the credit crunch came along,” says Crawley. “And the supermarkets said, 'Actually, we’d better keep colony hens.’ It was very much a cost-driven thing.”

At Tesco, half a dozen medium free-range eggs cost £1.30. Its everyday value ones are 93p. Many consumers may wince at the idea of “enriched cage” hens, but not at the price of their eggs. Only half of all the eggs consumed in Britain are free-range or organic (which has even stricter standards of animal welfare).

“Free-range is more labour-intensive,” explains Crawley, as he takes me across to one of his huge free-range barns, or huts. One worker is needed per 16,000 free-range hens, compared with one worker per 50,000 colony hens.

Curiously, he knocks on the door, before entering. “I do it so the chickens aren’t surprised when I come in.” He is not being sentimental; he is just trying to ensure that they don’t get stressed.

This is the key issue. Caged hens, even “enriched” ones, are fully controlled to the last inch. “Colony birds have a consistent life. There are far fewer variable factors compared with a free range.” And the big variable in the free-range hut right now is me and The Daily Telegraph’s photographer clomping about.

There are two key criteria that define hens as free-range under EU and British Lion guidelines. Firstly, they must have access to the outside. This is accomplished by opening a series of hatches along the side of the hut during daylight hours. About a quarter of the hens are outside, some rootling about in an orchard, and some even perched on the low branches of trees.

But the rest are inside – hordes of them, with an alarmingly large clutch gathering around my feet trying to untie the laces of my shoes and pecking my ankles.

The second free-range criterium is that there can be no more than nine animals per square metre, which is still pretty crowded.

So, while the hens outside look a happy, even an idyllic, sight in the autumnal Leicestershire fields, there is an industrial feel to the swarm of free-range hens inside. “There are some humans who jump out of bed at 5am and go to work. There are some who slump on the sofa all day with a four-pack of strong brew. And there are all those in between,” says Crawley. “Free-range hens are no different.”

Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall, the chef and a long-term campaigner for animal welfare, says he is unconvinced by the idea that colony birds can be as happy: “Only free-range birds are able express the full range of natural behaviours that hens naturally wish to engage in – foraging for natural foods such as plants and bugs, wing flapping, dust bathing, nesting and laying in comfort, and all the time moving in a natural environment without any restrictions. I’m sure it’s not easy to assess the welfare benefits of these behaviours scientifically.”

This point, of course, only refers to those hens who choose to explore the outside. Not the poultry layabouts.

There is one thing, though, I have yet to inspect: the taste of the eggs, which is an aspect of the free-range debate that many chefs do not address.

Crawley takes me back to his farmhouse, where his wife Jane cooks me two boiled eggs, both laid just a few hours previously.

I crack the tops off. One looks immediately golden and inviting, one a bit pallid. But both taste almost identical – rich without being luscious.

It turns out that the nice-looking one is the colony egg, not the free-range one as I had presumed. “It’s likely the pigment in the food made it that colour,” explains Crawley. I arch my eyebrow. “But that doesn’t mean it’s artificial. Maize is a natural colourant.”

Still, it is hard to disagree with Henry Dimbleby, co-owner of the Leon chain of restaurants (free-range only), when he says: “I actually have never done a taste test. But for me – however well ventilated and however well lit those caged barns are – there is something profoundly unsettling about them.”

I may not have been able to taste the difference in the eggs, but I could sense which hens had a better chance at a happy life.

Original Article Click Here    Article reposted agrinfobank.com Team only for education and information purpose only, along with original author name and post link, if author and source have any objection send your objection at article@agrinfobank.com.

Government committed to resolving poultry industry issues

"Government is committed to resolve the issues of poultry industry and enhance export of Halal processed food to Muslim countries as poultry sector can play an important role in uplifting of our economy," MNA Hamza Shahbaz Sharif said this while inaugurating Pakistan Poultry Expo IPEX 2013 in Lahore today.
Acknowledging the role of poultry industry in job creation and strengthening the economy, he said government would support industry as thousands of people are attached and it ultimately affects the lives of citizens. While quoting the example of India and China he said despite the fact that both countries have cold war on different issues but their mutual trade touches $74billion while they are co-operating to increase it to $100 billion. Meanwhile, he assured that one-window operation will be provided to facilitate the poultry sector and issues such as clearance of maps for construction of farms and other bureaucratic hurdles will be removed.
He also urged poultry farmers to streamline the operations and develop poultry sector on modern lines. He opined that this sector should also set up small power plants using agricultural waste and bio-mass like Germany, where around 7,000MW is produced by using energy mix. Earlier, Chairman Pakistan Poultry Association (PPA) Khalil Sattar in his briefing highlighted the growth, challenges, potential and bureaucratic hurdles faced by poultry industry.
He said Pakistan is the 11th largest poultry producing country in the world with huge potential to benefit from growing demand of Halal food world over. He added that poultry sector is playing key role in poverty alleviation and provided approximately 1.7 million jobs to skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled workers deep into the rural areas; thereby reducing chances of huge urbanisation.
He said in Pakistan poultry industry faced several setbacks in past including bird flu influenza, GST, taxes and duty incentives for imported chicken products which encouraged imported chicken processed. Moreover, TPO demands to get drafted maps from their desired architectures and farmers have to spend double amount for the maps' clearance.
For the growth of the sector he emphasised on withdrawal of zero rating of sales tax on processed and value-added products which has increased the cost of production. He also demanded removal of anomalies and added that import of machinery, equipment and implements should be free of advance income tax to reduce cost of investment.
He also highlighted examples of other countries where government support and incentives revived the industry. He said the UK VAT Act 1994 Schedule-8 Group-1 specifies food of a kind used for human consumption is Zero Rated. The term food includes products eaten as part of a meal or as a snack. Food items are not only exempted but also zero rated and entitled to input tax credit. In USA too, many States exempt all food items whether processed or unprocessed from payment of VAT.

Source: http://www.brecorder.com

Study: Effect Of Protein, Probiotics, Vitamins C And E On Semen Quality, Biochemical And Immunological Profiles Of Aged Broiler Breeders After Molting

Male fertility in poultry industry is one ofthe most important traits which dictate ultimate profitability. Recycling is though typically laying hens’ phenomenon, however, a few attempts in the past gave the hopeof augmenting the avian male fertility.
Therefore, a project was designed to recycle the culled male broiler breeders through zinc-induced molting. After molt, the birds were supplemented with some feed additives or reduced the protein level in feed as a part of two prong strategy to increase broiler breeder’s male fertility. According to the project design, male broiler breeders (Hubbard) at the age of 65 weeks were subjected to zinc-induced molting after 7 days adaptation period. Upon completion of molting, birds were randomly assigned to 6 groups. One group served as a control while the other groups were fed vitamin E, C, probiotics, less than normal level of protein or combination of these components. After first semen ejaculate, sampling was conducted and continued for the next 5 weeks.
The results obtained revealed that overall body weight did not differ between the groups, however, among the body organs weight, liver and heart weight increased significantly in combination group. Testes weight increased significantly in vitamin E fed groups, while pituitary weight increased significantly in vitamin E and C groups. Among the semen traits, semen volume did not differ between the groups, however, overall mean semen volume increasedsignificantly in vitamin E and C groups.
Similarly, sperm motility increased significantly in vitamin E group only. Sperm concentration did not change significantly,while dead sperm percentage decreased significantly in vitamin C group. Consequently, increased hatchability was noticed in the vitamin E and C fed groups.
Analyses of serum biochemistry revealed that despite transient TAC fluctuation in vitamin C, protein and probiotics groups, more stable increase was noticed in vitamin E group throughout the period, resultantly overall mean TAC also increased significantly in this group. Opposite to the serum TAC concentration, TOS concentration decreased in the treated groups, however, sharp decline was observed in the vitamin E group. Compare to control group, serum homocysteine concentration decreased significantly in vitamin E group.
Among serum enzymes, paraoxonase and arylesterase concentration increased significantly in vitamin E and C groups. Mean serum ceruloplasmin decreased significantly in vitamin C and combination groups. Overall mean serum ALT and AST decreased significantly in vitamin E group. Among the semen biomarkers, TAC concentration remained stable up to the week of the experiment, however, overall mean TAC increased significantly in vitamin E group. Similarly, seminal plasma homocysteine concentration decreased significantly in  vitamin E and C groups. Seminal plasma enzymes including paraoxonase, arylesterase and ceruloplasmin showed increasing trend in combination group. However, seminal plasma ALT and AST concentration decreased significantly in vitamin E fed group.
Results of serum hormones including T3, T4and cortisol concentration revealed that vitamin E fed group registered significantly highestconcentration of thyroid hormones. On the other hand, cortisol concentration did not differ atdifferent weeks and on overall basis.
Among parameters of cell mediatedimmunity, macrophage engulfment percentages did not differ among the treatmentsboth at 60 and 90 minutes at any week of the experiment. Overall mean engulfment percentage, opsonized and unopsonized, at 60 and 90 minutes, increased significantly in vitamin E fed groups. Similarly, macrophage nitric oxide production did not differ at 60 and 90 minutes in both conditions of opsonized and unopsonized. Like macrophage engulfment percentages, overall mean nitric oxide production increasedsignificantly in vitamin E supplemented group. In the current study, we tested serum antibody titer against ND and IB and the results indicated that the ND titer was higher in vitamin E and C groups, while titer against IBD was elevated in vitamin E fed group. The immunohistochemical study indicated that FSH, LH gonadotrophs cell size, cell area, nucleus size and nucleus area increased significantly as a result of vitamin E supplementation. No significant difference was found in somatotrophs cell size, cell area, nucleus size and nucleus area. The present study also showed that lactotrophs cell size, cell area, nucleus size and nucleus area increased in vitamin E supplemented group.
We further investigate the effect of molting and subsequent treatments on the status of serum and seminal plasma electrolytes, macr- and microminerals. The results revealed that serum and seminal plasma electrolytes did not differ between the groups in post-molt treated groups. In macrominerals, serum and seminal plasma, overall mean Mg concentration increased significantly in vitamin E fed group. Serum microminerals including Fe, Cu and Mn did not differ between the groups, however, overall serum Zn concentration increased significantly in vitamin E fed group. In seminal plasma, Fe, Zn and Mn did not differ, however, seminal plasma Cu concentration improved significantly in vitamin E fed group.
Conclusions
The fertility of male broiler breeders is going to be reduced particularly after 50 weeks of age. At the age of 65 weeks, their fertilizing ability is reached to diminishing level and such birds are culled due to pooreconomic outcome. Unlike laying hens, male birds are usually not recycled. In this study, we attempted to recycle male broiler birds through zinc-induced molting and supplemented them with different feed additives, the fruitful effects of which are well documented. We did not find any significant effect of protein, probiotics in this study. The cumulative effect of vitamin E, C, probiotics and protein was notas good as individual effect of vitamin E. In this study, we found that vitamin E improved semen quality traits and increased the hatchability. Similarly, we also observed that serum and seminal oxidative stress was reduced and the respective antioxidant enzymes status was improved in both the medium. As a positive effect of vitamin E, the immune level of the birds was improved and certain important minerals  like Mg, Zn and Cu concentration were elevated. Additionally, the Immunohistochemistry of FSH and LH gonadotrophs and lactotrophs morphometry improved as a result of vitamin E supplementation which may be responsible for efficient secretion of these hormones. In conclusion, these data suggested that vitamin E is more beneficial in improving the reproductive performance of male broiler breeders after zinc-induced molting.

Source: Rifat Ullah , Khan (2012) Effect Of Protein, Probiotics, Vitamins C And E On Semen Quality, Biochemical And Immunological Profiles Of Aged Broiler Breeders After Molting. PhD thesis, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad .

Methodologies for Gas Emission Measurement in Broiler Houses

Saturday, July-20-2013  By: Richard Gates, Ph.D., P.E. Professor (University of Illinois)

Summary

Measurement of gaseous emissions from poultry and livestock facilities has been an active area of research for more than two decades. Large-scale national studies have been conducted in the USA and Europe. Lessons learned from these projects include an appreciation for the magnitude of measurement uncertainty associated results, a large range in reported values for similar systems, and an appreciation for the special challenges related to emissions measurements from naturally ventilated structures. This paper briefly describes the background of emissions measurements and discusses how such projects might be conducted in Brazil in the future.

Introduction

Emission of gas such as ammonia (NH3) from broiler houses is of interest to establish national inventories and to assess the poultry industry's role in environmental impacts associated with the emissions. These include particulate formation, regional haze, and deposition of oxides of nitrogen downstream from facilities. A national inventory can be developed from careful field measurements (Gates et al. 2008). Careful measurements involve substantial investment in trained labor and equipment, as well as willingness on the part of the industry to provide access to facilities. Issues such as representativeness of the 2 sites sampled, selection of instrumentation and sampling frequency, and a host of other factors directly affect the cost of implementation.

The need for a detailed assessment of the uncertainty of emissions measurements (i.e. the accuracy with which emissions can be measured and reported) is critical. An example uncertainty analysis for a recent national broiler emissions project is provided in Gates et al. (2009) and is a key part of any project's quality assurance (Moody et al., 2008). Some other recent examples of measurements from US poultry facilities include: Casey et al (2008; 2010), Liang et al. (2005), Topper et al. (2010) and Wheeler et al (2006).

Measuring emissions requires generally two basic types of measurement, namely the concentration of gas above background levels that leaves the building, and the ventilation rate of the building. For tunnel-ventilated broiler housing, this is a fairly straightforward set of measurements, conceptually at least. However, while straightforward, the impact of management and design details unique to broiler housing do complicate the determination of emission rate. These factors include intermittent fan operation, large scale of buildings, and complicated interactions between management, season and weather patterns.

Discussion

The need for a properly designed and executed Quality Assurance Project Management Plan (QAP) is critical for rigorous emissions measurement projects. An example (Moody et al., 2008) has been recently published for a project to quantify ammonia emissions from broiler housing in the USA. The QAP documents all instrumentation utilized in the study, the appropriate Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) for their use, a set of Data Quality Objectives, which are used to determine a-priori thresholds for re-calibration or repair, and record-keeping measures to ensure the quality of data collected.

An overview of ammonia measurement systems for broiler facilities is provided by Saraz (2013). They outline the major direct measurement methods for gas concentration including the Portable Monitoring Unit method (PMU, Gates et al., 2005), the Mobile Air Emissions Monitoring Unit (MAEMU, Moody et al., 2008), and the Saraz Method for Determining Ammonia Emission (SMDAE, Osorio, 2011). This latter method, SMDAE, also works with naturally ventilated structures and does not require direct measurement of ventilation separately.

For mechanically ventilated systems, one must also measure ventilation rate simultaneosuly with ammonia concentration. General methods include use of average fan performance curves (by continuously measuring building static pressure during a test, and computing the ventilation rate for each fan from these performance curves), and various tracer gas techniques, including use of naturally occuring CO2 as a balance tracer gas (Xin et al., 2009). More recently, the adoption in the USA of the Fan Assessment Numeration System (FANS, Gates et al., 2004) has greatly reduced measurement uncertainty of emissions with respect to ventilation rate and was used in the works on USA broiler emissions cited earlier.

Various gas measurement methods are used. The MAEMU system, and related other systems used in national studies, utilize a photoacoustic ultrasonic gas analyzer to measure ammonia and other gases, and automate the process to also include multiplexed sampling of representative locations in the broiler house. These systems also include measurements of building static pressure, which when combined with previously aquired individual fan calibration curves from FANS unit testing, allow researchers to to compute ventilation rate dynamically. Adjustments for non-standard temperature and barometric pressure are applied and the hourly, daily or weekly emissions can be computed and recorded.

Less complicated systems include the PMU method (Gates et al. 2005), which relies on lower-cost portable units that sample ammonia concentrations for a few days using electrochemical technology. Care must be taken to acquire building static pressure simultaneously, and to create individual fan calibration curves from FANS unit testing, similar to the MAEMU approach. While this system is less complicated and it lends itself to shorter-term sampling of a large number of sites, substantial trained personnel involvement is required to maintain the instruments and to manage the data flow process.

The Saraz Method is inherently simple, consisting of a set of acid-­-soaked sponges that are arranged around the building perimeter. After a period of time, for example one or two days, the sponges are collected and the mass of ammonia collected is determined by titration in a laboratory. The sum of all these ammonia sample masses,integrated over their respective opening areas provides a direct estimate of the average emission of the period of sampling. Limitations to this method include the need for a large number of sponges, the lack of dynamic values (hourly or daily), challenge in dealing with varying and shifting wind patterns during the testing, and substantial laboratory work to reduce the samples.

Measuring ventilation rate directly in ventilated structures is quite challenging. Many of the previous limitations encountered in poultry and swine housing in US-style systems with sidewall fans were reduced in the past decade by using the FANS method (Gates et al., 2004). This instrument has greatly reduced ventilation rate measurement uncertainty (Gates et al., 2009) and provided opportunities for improved ammonia inventory estimates (Gates et al., 2008). However, other methods including tracer gas techniques (Xin et al., 2009) and less robust direct measurements using assumed fan performance curves have been used. These are shown to substantially increase the uncertainty in emissions rate measurements (Gates et al., 2009; Casey et al., 2007). By contrast, the Saraz Method does not require any other direct measurement of ventilation rate, and as noted above, is suited for naturally ventilated systems. lt is imited mostly by the number of sample locations that are used around the building perimeter.

An interesting comparison of PMU and two open-path measurement techniques was done by Casey et al. (2010). The two open-­-path methods were Open-­-Path Fourier Transform Infra-­-Red (OP-­-FTIR) and Open-Path Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy (OP-TDLAS). Both were found to over-estimate emissions compared to those obtained with simultaneous PMU measurements. The inclusion of ventilation rate measurements from use of FANS to develop in-­-situ performance curves for each fan, similar to that done with PMU and MAEMU methods, was found in to greatly improve predicted emissions. The systems are quite expensive, over $250k each and require substantial operator expertise. However, they show promise because entry into the facilities is not required.

Conclusions

This paper has provided a brief overview of current methods for measuring emissions from intensive poultry and livestock productions systems in the USA. A few lessons learned from this to date include:

1. Ventilation rate determination can be the limiting factor in mechanically ventilated systems, and is even more challenging to determine in naturally ventilated structures. The use of FANS to determine in-situ fan peformance curves has been shown to greatly reduced ventilation rate uncertainty, and hence also emission rate uncertainty.

2. Direct gas concentration measurement systems include the relatively low-cost PMU system and the more sophisiticated MAEMU system. The former has advantage of low cost and allows for deployent at multiple sites; the latter has lower emissions rate uncertainty and provides for high temporal resolution.

3. Both the Open-Path and Saraz Method (SMDAE) allow researchers to estimate mass flux of the gas leaving a facility, and show some promise for naturally ventilated structures.

4. A Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAP) is a critical component of any large-scale emissions measuring experiment and requires substantial investment in time and planning, but provides a detailed and documented plan for conducting the measurements and reporting the results along with an estimate of their uncertainty.

References

Casey, K.D., R.S. Gates, R.C. Shores, E.D. Thoma, and D.B. Harris. 2010. Ammonia emissions from a U.S. broiler house – comparison of concurrent measurements using three different technologies. Journal of Air and Waste Management Association. 60(8):939-948.

Casey, K.D., R.S. Gates, E.F. Wheeler, H. Xin, Y. Liang, A. Pescatore, and M. Ford. 2008. On- farm fan performance: implications for ventilation and operating cost. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 17(2):283-295.

Casey, K.D., S.E. Ford, J.W. McClure, Y. Zhang, and R.S. Gates. 2007. Determining fan performance using FANS: an investigation of performance impacts. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 23(3):333-338.

Gates, R.S., K.D. Casey, H. Xin, and R.T. Burns. 2009. Building emissions uncertainty estimates. Transactions of the ASABE 52(4):1345-1351.

Gates, R.S., K.D. Casey, E.F. Wheeler, H. Xin, and A.J. Pescatore. 2008. U.S. broiler ammonia emissions inventory model. Atmospheric Environment 42(14):3342-3350.

Gates, R.S., H. Xin, K.D. Casey, Y. Liang and E.F. Wheeler. 2005. Method for measuring ammonia emissions from poultry houses. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 14(3):622- 634.

Gates, R.S., K.D. Casey, H. Xin, E.F. Wheeler, and J.D. Simmons. 2004. Fan assessment numeration system (FANS) design and calibration specifications. Transactions of the ASAE 47(5):1709-1715.

Liang, Y., H. Xin, E.F. Wheeler, R.S. Gates, H. Li, J.S. Zajaczkowski, P. A. Topper, K.D. Casey, B.R. Behrends, D.J. Burnham, and F.J. Zajaczkowski. 2005. Ammonia emissions from U.S. laying houses in Iowa and Pennsylvania. Transactions of the ASAE 48(5):1927-1941.

Moody, L.B., H. Li, R.T. Burns, H. Xin, R. S. Gates, S.J. Hoff and D.G. Overhults. 2008. Southeastern Broiler Gaseous and Particulate matter Emissions Monitoring Quality Assurance Project Plan. Published as Special ASABE peer reviewed publication. 289 pages. ASABE. St. Joseph, MI. http://asae.frymulti.com/aqap_handbook.asp?confid=aqap2008

OSORIO J.A. Determinação experimental e modelagem em CFD das taxas de emissões de amônia de camas de aviários e distribuições de concentrações, temperatura e velocidade do ar no interior de galpões avícolas, Capitulo 1: "Adaptação e validação de metodologia para determinação de taxa de emissões de amônia gerada pela cama em aviários ventilados naturalmente" e Capitulo 4: "3D CFD para determinar a distribuição de concentração de amônia em galpões avícolas não isolados com ventilação natural". Viçosa: 122 f. Tese (Doutorado em Construções Rurais). Departamento de Engenharia Agrícola, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, 2011

Saraz, J.A.O., I.F.F. Tinoco, R.S. Gates, M.O. Paula and L.B. Mendes. 2013. Evaluation of different methods for determining ammonia emissions in poultry buildings and their applicability to open facilties. Santos, M.O., M.A. Martins, J.S.R. Coimbra, R.S. Gates and L.P. Corredo. 2013. Revista Dyna 80(180): in press.

Topper, P.A., E.F. Wheeler, J.S. Zajaczkowski, R.S. Gates, H. Xin, Y. Liang, and K.D. Casey. 2008. Ammonia emissions from two empty broiler houses with built-up litter. Transactions of the ASABE 51(1):219-225.

Wheeler, E.F., K.D. Casey, R.S. Gates, H. Xin, J.L. Zajaczkowski, P.A. Topper, Y. Liang, and A.J. Pescatore. 2006. Ammonia emissions from twelve U.S.A. broiler houses. Transactions of the ASABE 49(5):1495-1512.

Xin, H., H. Li, R.T. Burns, R.S. Gates, D.G. Overhults, and J.W. Earnest. 2009. Use of CO2 concentration difference or CO2 balance to assess ventilation rate of broiler houses. Transactions of the ASABE 52(4):1353-1361.

Source: http://en.engormix.com

‘Pakistan has great export potential in poultry industry’

Friday, July 19, 2013

Federal Minister for the Ministry of National Food Security and Research Sikandar Hayat Khan Bosan on Thursday said Pakistan has great export potential in poultry industry and can also benefit from growing demand of Halal food world over.
He expressed these views during a meeting with a delegation of poultry industry here at the ministry. Earlier minister was briefed on the state of poultry industry by K&N’s Chief Executive Khalil Sattar. Sattar said that contribution of poultry industry in gross domestic product was 1.7 percent while at the same time it was providing 1.7 million jobs to skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled workers. Moreover poultry industry has also played an important role in alleviating poverty by improving rural economy.
While discussing ways for sustainable growth in poultry production, the delegation requested the federal minister to take notice of dearth of well-equipped veterinary laboratories at district level particularly in intensive poultry producing areas of the country. The minister assured the delegation that steps will be taken to introduce modern diagnostic facilities in required areas to improve poultry output.
Bosan also stated that Pakistan has great export potential in poultry industry and can also tap into the growing demand of Halal food worldwide. staff report.

Source: Daily Times

Prices of poultry products rise almost 40 percent

July 03, 2013

Taking advantage of high prices of poultry products in Punjab, dealers and vendors have unilaterally increased the rates from 35 to 40 percent here in the provincial capital. However, the district administration has taken action against the dealers and vendors, to full comply with the order of Peshawar High Court, regarding the fixing rates of poultry products below the Rs 175 per kg in the province. But, the dealers and vendors are defying the order of PHC and selling chicken meat at Rs 202 per kg, against the official fixed rate of Rs 151 per kg.
In a visit to wholesale and open market by this scribe, it was witnessed that the prices of all kind of poultry products have been increased up to 35 to 40 percent. A good weight chicken is being sold at Rs 300 to 320, which was available at Rs 240 to 250 during last week. Similarly, the prices of poultry other products were also substantial increased due to vendors fixing of artificial prices.
Poultry dealers and vendors viewed that they are mostly depended on Punjab market, to fulfil the required quantity of poultry products on daily basis. "We are not able to sell chicken meat at Rs 151 per kg as fixed by local administration, because of the high rates in Punjab, wherein chicken is being sold at Rs 163 per kg, said Haji Jangraiz Khan, a poultry dealer. He added that they had purchased a 40 mand chicken at Rs 7,200 along with additional cost of transportation and other expenses.
He said that KP market is about 80 percent dependent on Punjab market. "If the prices of poultry products have been increased in Punjab, then they are compelled to increase rates there, he maintained. Similarly, he said that the fodder prices also gone up, now a bag of 50 kg of fodder is being sold at Rs 2,300. In present situation, he said the poultry dealers and vendors can't sell chicken meat at Rs 151 per kg fixed by local administration.
Mohammad Irshad, a vendor in the wholesale market in Peshawar, said that the business had been adversely affected due to fixing low prices and shortage of required stock of poultry in the province. He said it was totally unjust with dealers and vendors to fix prices against the rates in Punjab, because the KP is mostly dependent to purchase poultry from the Punjab.
Meanwhile, the poultry vendors shut their shops and held a protest demonstration against the district administration for illegal raid of shops and arresting vendors without any reasons. The protesting vendors warned that if the government was not reviewed the present prices of poultry, then they would compel to launch a organised protest movement against it.

Source: http://www.brecorder.com

Agriculture-Women Work Power

Pakistan is a third world country with more than 162 million population. It has varied strata of life with multidimensional livelihood strategies. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy.

 It has employed 44.8% of the work force. More than 51% of the country’s population comprises of women. Rural women play a significant role in various arenas of life. Ordinary farm women are the main players in sustaining life activities both at home and farm. They are active participants in agriculture, livestock management and poultry husbandry, also their participation in community development and social relations are recognizable. Whereas in livestock production they look after animals and do primary veterinary care. They also have to perform the domestic chores of cooking, cleaning the house, washing clothes, foster the kids and getting water and fuel supplies for domestic usage. Although they perform all of the above mentioned tasks, however, due to lack of resources, information, and technical guidance, they have to face difficulties to meet the challenges of the time. On account of their diverse preoccupations they lose their life time opportunity of education, nutrition, medicare and security. Due to lack of skill enhancement training, they are lagging behind in crop production, livestock management and post harvest operations resulting low yield of the crops and poor quality of the produce. To probe into the matter, a study was designed. The target area was District Bahawalpur which consists of five Tehsils namely Hasilpur, Bahawalpur, Khairpur Tamewali, Ahmadpur East and Yazman. Out of which two Tehsils were selected randomly and five union councils from each Tehsil were also randomly selected. From each selected union council 2 villages were selected randomly. From each selected village 20 women, who were engaged in agricultural activities, were selected through random sampling, thus making a total of 400 respondents. The data collection were effected under a pre-tested interview schedule designed for this purpose. The data thus collected, were analyzed and interpreted to draw the conclusions and to suggest measures for improvement. The results revealed that the majority of the women were involved in crop production activities such as cotton picking, wheat harvesting and drying of agriculture produce at the ordering of 1st, 2nd and 3rd respectively. In livestock sector, activities like whey making, milking, milk storage are the top three activities performed by women. The study also depicted an encouraging response against gender bias in fields like education and training. Most of the women (i.e., 375) selected daily training format for their skill enhancement. Instead of sociological constraints of the area, the dire need of the women is training and education in crop production activities, livestock management, poultry production and drying of fruits and vegetables.

Refernce:

Iftikhar, Naveed (2010) The Role Of Rural Women In Agriculture And Their Training Needs: A Case Study Of Distt. Bahawalpur, Pakistan. PhD thesis, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad

Modernization of poultry farming

By Asif Maqbool, Naeem Sarwar and Khuda Baksh

Every community in the world is responsible to provide its residents adequate food and guarantee them freedom from hunger and malnutrition.

It becomes especially important when about 15-20 per cent of the world population is still unable to obtain sufficient food to meet minimum nutritional requirements for a healthy and productive life.

The current poor nutritional status is due to lack of sufficient energy and protein in the food. A balanced diet is essential for good health, vigour and productive capacity of the people. Protein plays an important role in the formation of balanced human diet. There are mainly two origins of proteins, animal and plant.

The human diet in Pakistan is deficient with respect to proteins of animal origin. At present 66 per cent of the people are deficient in protein. The requirement of protein is 102.7 gram per head per day while the available protein is 69.61 gram per head per day. The gap in requirement of protein is 33.09 gram. The main source of animal protein is beef, mutton, milk, poultry meat and eggs.

In developing countries like Pakistan where the population is growing at a faster rate, the gap in production of food especially of animal origin is widening year after year.

The animal protein shortage seems still more grave especially when it is compared with the protein intake of various developed countries like U.S.A., Canada, Germany, France, Japan and U.K., where consumption of protein is 79-95 gram per capita per day of which 46-65 gram is protein of vegetable origin.

The nutrition dilemma demands a special focus to overcome the existing deficiencies with particular reference to protein deficiency and availability from animal source.

To overcome the animal protein gap, poultry meat seems to offer much better prospects. It is capable of providing protein in terms of quality and can narrow the animal protein supply gap in minimum possible time as compared to other sources of animal protein.

Until 1964, poultry production was a cottage industry in Pakistan. The management and production on modern scientific lines was not known and disease control measures were also not sufficient.

In 1964, PIA shaver laid the foundation of commercial poultry production by introducing new and improved breeds of layers and broilers and by Lever Brothers with production of poultry feed on modern lines.

Government on her part, exempted this industry from income tax and sales tax, allowed export of table eggs, day old chicks and broiler on subsidized rates. Poultry production now has emerged as a good substitute of beef and mutton.

This table shows that poultry is developing in our country in spite of problems this industry is facing. However, along with this expansion, the poultry raisers lament the low economic returns on their products and consumers in street protest against high cost of poultry which is due to high marketing margin.

The poultry industry faces problems like the incidence of diseases, substandard and costly feed and inefficient marketing system. In all stages of development, there is a need for improving the efficiency and lowering the cost of distribution.

An economical marketing system can help the producers sell their products at reasonable prices and the consumers to buy their needs at minimum cost. If we want to survive in post-WTO scenario, we should give emphasis on quality and price. In a competitive environment only those products will be accepted by consumers which are of good quality and are also available at reasonable price.

Losses occur in case of death of birds due to diseases and poor handling. Grading is largely ignored in egg trade because of extra cost required for grading. Transportation is the most important component of marketing system. In economic sense, transportation means the moving of goods from surplus production areas to deficient areas.

For marketing of eggs and birds, the commission agents and retailers use various means of transportation to take produce to the market. Bicycle, motorcycle, wagons and donkey carts are being used for transportation.

The higher losses during transportation are due to longer distance, bumpy roads and lack of modern packing techniques. Poultry farmers don't get fair returns. They put a lot of effort in increasing and developing their business but the commission agents usually get the produce from them at low prices and earn a lot of profit by selling at a higher price.

Poultry farmers should do their job both as producer as well as commission agents. So, they can earn more profit out of their business. To improve the present marketing system of poultry, following suggestions may be helpful:

• To curtail breakage losses, packing and distribution system should be modernized

• Government should take immediate steps to improve the roads, for timely and quickly delivery of produce.

• To enhance economic viability of the poultry industry, the prices of feed and medicines should be kept within reasonable limits.

• Poultry coordination boards should be established at federal as well as provincial level to stabilize and maintain quality prices.

• Lack of grading at farm level dos not promote the quality of eggs at a price premium. So practice of grading at producer's level would be encouraged and price information on the basis of grades and standards should be regularly collected and disseminated.

• Inadequate health facilities are one of the major constraints in poultry production. It is due to viral, bacterial infection and parasitic infestation. For this, a long run vaccination and de-worming campaign policy should be started at national level.

• Government should construct veterinary laboratory for drug residue testing in the poultry products. This will ensure quality in exported products.

• Steps should be taken to improve sanitary and hygienic conditions of birds casing processing units.

Courtesy: The DAWN

Pre –Brooding Management of chicks

By Mohsin Shabbir
University of Agriculture,Faisalabad,Pakistan
DEFINITION

All the managemental practices before brooding or before receiving the chicks in other sense various measures, which we provide in preparation for new-hatched chicks arriving at our farm.

We will study different factors, which play very important role in the process of pre-brooding management and main purpose of this process is to avoid different diseases, which cause great economical losses due to poor managemental practices, Prevention is most and best economical method of disease control. Prevention is best achieved by the use of sanitation and biosecurity programmes.

Poultry house sanitation begins with a clean sanitized house prepared well in advance of arrival of chicks. Each house should remain empty at least two weeks after, it is disinfected and fumigate .The effectiveness of sanitizing a house is depended upon the extend of the cleaning before the germicide is applied. This cleaning helps to control disease because,

a) It reduces number of pathogenic organisms.

b) Remove material that helps in multiplication of pathogens.

c) Expose surface to the disinfectant and fumigants.

Phases in the Procedure
In the process of pre-brooding management following measures are generally considered for taking good results.

A- Selection of area

B- Cleaning

C- Removal of litter

D- Clean the equipment

E -Dusting/web removal

F - Repairing

G - White Washing

H- Disinfection

I- Fumigation

J- Provision of different materials

K-Equipment testing

L- Arrival of chicks

A-Selection of area
Most important factors, is the selection of area in the shed .The house should be cleaned and disinfected, immediate preparation is necessary so that the building may lie empty for one to two weeks prior to placing new chicks in them.

Disinfection and fumigation will kill most of the disease-producing organisms. An empty house will break the life cycle of pathogens. This process reduces the chances of infection and if shed fenced around property it will save birds from predators. At least 80--100 feet away from other sheds with minimum traffic is suitable. There has been increasing numbers of objections from residence near poultry sites claim that they suffer nuisance to the quality of their lives but also causes ill health. Good ventilation and environmental conditions will greatly help in reducing smell. Good management of environment is best way to reduce complaint smell and manure.

B-Cleaning
There is no hope of overall hygiene process being fully effective if there is any much left in the house. There are basics flaws in the construction allowing penetration of the structure by the pathogens for example previous services, poor protection of joints wear on floors and inaccessibility of certain parts such as ventilators. The cleaning process must involve following.

C- Removal of litters
Old litter should remove from the poultry house if it is piled near the house, rats and vermin may carry the residual disease back into the house.

D- Clean the equipment
All equipment must be washed with Kmno4 and disinfected .The equipment should be moved outside the house in sun an area inside the fenced enclosure to complete the cleaning process. The equipment should be moved back into the house.

a) House ceiling and walls

Remove dusty walls and ceiling with moderate volume of water. Using boiling water is most effective and economical method for disinfection purpose.

b) Clean out old feed

Unused feed should not hold over from one brood of birds to the next feed bins and feeders should be completely cleaned.

E-Dusting/Web removal
Once litter has been removed the next priority should be removal of numerous spider web that bloom here and there on walls, flying birds often enter in the sheds and build nests in ceiling, these should be removed.

F-RepairingDuring this period done all the repairing work like repairing work of gas pipes, brooders, electricall equipments, windows and doors.

Wash House
Wash ceiling walls floor with generous amounts of water. Preferably add some detergent to wash house. Next all cracks crevices in the wall floor or ceiling should be filled up. All leakage in the gas pipes or water pipes should be sealed, electric short circuit should be corrected and fuse etc should be replaced.

G-Disinfection
A basic essential is that disinfection programme must be most carefully planned. The disinfection of a building implies the elimination from the house all microorganism that are capable of causing disease. Follow the manufacture instruction carefully and make sure that the disinfection has proven active against the pathogens.

H-Fumigation
This is the very important procedure to give a final boost to the disinfection programme, at this stage the house is setup ready for the next crop for this purpose formaldehyde gas is most suitable. The shed should be properly sealed before fumigation 17.5 gram Kmno4 and 35 CC formaline can be used for fumigation.

I-Provision of material

i) Litter

Put the litter in the selected area, there should be ample supply of relevant material e.g rice husk, saw dust litter should be economical, comfortable and absorbent, saw dust may be from hard wood or soft wood while using for chicks soft wood saw dust should be used because hard wood contains tannin which will be eaten by chicks and result in high mortality due to vent pasting .Try to cover saw dust by newspaper or paper so that chicks cannot eat it in the beginning.

ii) Feed

For starter you may use ground maize, which is easily digestible and due to its high fiber content reduce pasting problem. It is a good source of energy.

iii) Fuel
In case you are using kerosene oil, wood or coal burning brooders, you should have stocks of relevant fuel.

iv) Equipment testing
Never forget the functional capability of your brooders. The burners should be controlled properly. The gas or electric supply should be proper.

ARRIVAL OF CHICKS
Following precautionary measures may be undertaken at the arrival of chicks.

i) The chicks should be arrive early in the morning so that you have full day to observe them and take care of them.

ii) Place the chick guard (2-3 feet from the edge and increase area weekly this will reduce cannabalism and increase feed utilization.

iii) Do flushing at start for this use 250gm sugar/gallon of water, which is mixed to provide carbohydrate to chick and clear the digestive tract.

iv) Use ground maize for 2-3 days for feeding because it contains more fibers, which is easily digestible.

v) Use certain broad-spectrum antibiotics for 5 to 7 days. If chicks are healthy, then use for 3 days and if there is infection then give about for 7 days to reduce the outbreak.e.g:

· Tribrisin 1 c c/gallon of water.

· Erythro F.Z 4 tea spoon/gallon of water.

· Oxytetracycline 11% 125 gm/gallon of water.

vi) Brooder temperature should be kept at 90-95F each week and don’t go less than 75F.This temperature should be recorded at the height of about two inches above the litter on the outer edge.

vii) Farm manager should be present and ever alert, count the number of the chicks, closely regulates temperature of shed and of the brooder and above all observes closely, all requirements of birds.

Source: http://www.pakissan.com/english/allabout/livestock/poultry/pre.brooding.management.of.chicks.shtml

Starting a Small Flock of Chickens

I have been giving the following article—an overview of our approach to flock management—as the handout for my poultry seminars for several years.

I am now writing a replacement which will address the same issues, but will emphasize five areas: Pasturing the flock (using electronet fencing), “putting the flock to work” in various homestead endeavors, deep litter for best management of manure in the poultry house, using natural mothers for incubating and brooding new stock, and feeding issues. I will eventually post the new version on the site. ~February 2007

Getting Started

Chickens are the easiest of all livestock to raise. Their needs for feed and shelter are easily met. The eggs and meat you can get from a home flock will be superior to anything you can buy. And a flock of chickens is an endless source of fascination for the whole family. Give them a try!

Choosing a Breed

If your main interest in chickens is egg production, you might choose one of the Mediterranean class breeds - Leghorns, Golden or Silver Campines, Buttercups, Hamburgs, Blue Andalusians, Minorcas, etc. These breeds tend to be somewhat smaller and lighter in weight, as they put more of their resources into egg production rather than larger frames and greater muscle mass. They usually lay white eggs. Some of these breeds can a bit high-strung.

Meat breeds are typified by the Cornish Cross, a very fast-growing hybrid with a broad, plump breast, easy to dress out. These birds can be ready for slaughter at seven or eight weeks. (If slaughtered at 12-14 weeks they produce excellent roasters.) Because they grow so fast, they are not as vigorous or resilient as others, and easily expire from episodes of sudden stress. [Some breeders in the "pastured poultry" movement are trying to breed new broiler crosses especially for production on pasture that are considerably more robust than the Cornish Cross. Typically, such birds require a little longer grow-out than the Cornish; but exhibit better vigor, none of the leg and heart problems of the Cornish, yet dress out with the sort of plump, broad breast the market has come to expect.]

Many people prefer a compromise between the meat and the egg "specialists": The dual-purpose breeds, which lay well (usually brown shelled eggs) and grow fast enough to serve well as table fowl (though they are not as broad breasted as the meat-production hybrids). Birds of this type are ready for slaughter at about 12 or 13 weeks of age. They are usually more gentle and easy-going than the Mediterranean group. Among these breeds are New Hampshire and Rhode Island Reds, Barred Rocks, Buff Orpingtons, Brahmas, Cochins, Wyandottes, and Ameraucanas (which lay pastel-tinted eggs).

Usually the discussion of breed choice ends here. However, I urge you to consider also the historic breeds, such as the five-toed Dorkings, which originated in Rome before the time of Julius Caesar. While not as productive as modern breeds, the historic breeds have other virtues to recommend them. For example, Old English Games may not be ready for slaughter until five months old and may lay only 200 eggs a year - but they can virtually feed themselves if given enough space to forage; the hens are devoted and fiercely protective mothers; and their meat was once the standard against which all other table fowl were judged.

Sources for Stock

Just-hatched chicks can be sent through the mail. Many people turn first to one of the mega-hatcheries such as Murray McMurray. They feature large selections and illustrated catalogs. My own preference is to seek out smaller, family owned regional hatcheries, which I have found may provide more personalized service and superior stock.

You can get both chicks and started stock from the local farmers co-op, though the choice of breeds is very limited. You can also connect with local enthusiasts who have stock to sell through classified ads or a publication such as the Valley Trader.

Finally, of course, you can breed your own. This may not be a realistic option if you're just starting out. But at some time in the future, you may find that it is quite a thrill to "hatch your own." You might try your luck with an artificial incubator. Or, if you're lucky enough to have a broody hen, you can just "let mama do it."

Brooding

If you start with day-old stock, you will have to be a surrogate mama to your baby chicks. Set up an enclosed brooder which is free from drafts and protected from rodents, cats, etc.; and which contains an absorbent litter such as wood shavings and a source of heat such as a 250-watt lamp or two. The waterer should be designed so that the chicks cannot wade into it and get wet. Temperature should be maintained so that the chicks are neither huddling under the heat source, nor huddling in a corner as far as possible from the heat. If they are scooting around the brooder like a bunch of little water bugs, all is well. Frequent monitoring of the brooder is the key to success.

Of course, if you have a mother hen who is raising your new chicks, you don't have to worry about any of this. When it comes to raising baby chickens, a mother hen is a lot smarter than you.

Housing

Housing for chickens can be extremely simple. If you already have an existing shed or outbuilding, it can probably be modified to serve quite nicely. The fundamental requirements are that the birds be protected from the wind or heavy drafts; and that they be completely dry. Chickens have a strong instinct to roost; so will be more content if furnished with some structure on which to roost.

It is important not to overcrowd your birds. Allow a minimum of three square feet per bird, up to an ideal five square feet or more. Of course, if the flock has constant access to the outside, they will do fine with less space in their "sleeping quarters" inside.

If you plan to build a new structure in which to house your birds, I strongly recommend that you keep an earth floor in the building, and cover it with a thick layer of high-carbon litter such as oak leaves, wood shavings, etc. (I do not think straw is a good litter material over earth floor, as it can support the growth of molds which can be a respiratory problem for the birds.) The constant scratching of the chickens incorporates the droppings into the litter, preventing the typical "caking" of manure which results in foul odors, flies, and possible buildup of pathogens. The constant mixing of the manure with the high-carbon litter results in a decomposition process similar to that in a compost pile. The billions of microorganisms driving this decomposition actually produce Vitamins K and B12, various natural antibiotics, and other immune-enhancing substances which the chickens ingest while scratching for and eating tiny critters in the litter. A study in the Ohio state university system in the 1920's demonstrated that chickens could obtain 100% of their protein from a mature 12-inch litter. You can periodically (say once a year) remove the litter and use it as compost without further processing.

If you have to use an existing building with a wood floor, that's okay. Here, too, you should lay down a thick layer of dry, high-carbon litter. (In this case, where the litter remains dry, a straw litter is okay.) Your poultry house will be far more pleasant for you and more healthful for the chickens. When you remove a mix of litter and manure from a structure with a wooden floor, you should compost it before adding it to the garden.

Whenever you notice a strong odor of ammonia, especially upon opening the poultry house in the morning, it is time either to clean out the litter, or add another layer of high-carbon material.

Joel Salatin has observed that, if allowed five square feet per bird, the chickens will continually turn in all manure laid down. At four square feet, there will be some "capping" of manure (accumulation of an impervious layer the birds cannot incorporate), especially under the roosts. At three square feet, there can be capping over all or most of the litter. If you find that the manure is building up in this way, simply use a spading fork to turn over the capped areas in clumps. The chickens will then be able to break up the clumps and work them into the litter.

Whatever shelter you give your birds should protect them from wind and sharp drafts; but at the same time should allow for adequate ventilation. I installed solid outer doors and inner frame doors with wire mesh. This configuration allows me to open up the house completely to air flow, while still keeping the birds confined and protected when desired. Also, the birds are able to sun themselves in the direct sunlight coming through the mesh doors and windows at various times during the day.

Please note that, if their shelter is tight and dry, chickens are very cold hardy. It is not necessary to provide artificial heat; and it could be detrimental to do so. [Occasionally single-comb cocks will get some frostbite on combs or wattles. If this becomes a serious problem, you could keep breeds with rose or pea combs instead.]

You will of course design your housing with predator protection (especially at night) in mind. But don't anticipate threats like dogs, raccoons, and foxes only - a least weasel can get through any opening large enough for a rat! (I once lost 19 young chickens to a least weasel!) And speaking of rats: Remember that they can be a serious threat to chicks. Half-inch hardware cloth is a great thing!

Feeding

Commercial poultry feed contains products from rendering plants, reprocessed deep-frying oil, feather meal, and other low quality ingredients which can be quite stale by the time it is fed. For these reasons I prefer to grind my own feed every few days, using certified organic ingredients I buy from Countryside Natural Products near Staunton. Making your own feed may not be a realistic option for you. Countryside also offers premixed versions of the feeds I make, in 50-lb. bags. Fortunately, they are now delivering once a month into the Northern Virginia area. Call them at 888-699-7088 for more information about products and deliveries, or visit Countryside Natural Products.

However, if local commercial feed is the only realistic alternative for you, by all means use it. If your birds have access to pasture, your eggs and dressed poultry will still be superior to any you can buy. If you do use commercial feeds, keep a couple of precautions in mind. Chickens are appropriately fed different mixes at different stages of growth, varying especially with regard to proportions of protein and of minerals, particularly calcium. It is important to feed your birds appropriate to their stage of growth. However, you should strictly avoid feeding chicks a chick formula containing antibiotics. Feeding such medications as a steady part of the diet is completely unnecessary in a small batch of chicks not stressed by crowding such as yours; and excessive use of antibiotics in our food supply has serious long-term implications for both animal and human health. If you cannot get an antibiotic-free starter mix (such as Countryside's), I suggest starting your chicks on the next stage formula ("grower mix" or "pullet developer") instead, perhaps supplementing with a little fish meal to boost the protein.

When using commercial feeds, you can also add a little kelp (dried seaweed) meal, an excellent natural all-round mineral supplement.

Whatever you feed, always make sure your birds have daily access to some green forage. When they are confined to the winter housing, you can dig dandelion and yellow dock up by the roots and throw them to the flock - the tops stay green much longer than other forage plants, and they are very palatable and highly nutritious to poultry. If you have a greenhouse, set aside a little space for greens (assorted grains, mustards, kale, rape, and other cold-hardy greens are good candidates) for the birds. Or sprout some of those same seeds and expose them to sunlight long enough for them to green up, then toss them to the flock. Remember, you don't need to feed a lot of green forage - even small amounts are highly beneficial.

You should also feed the flock grit (small bits of stone and gravel, which they need for grinding their feed in the gizzard) and, in the case of layers, crushed oyster shell as a calcium supplement. These amendments are not so important for birds on pasture, since they are able to pick up what they need on their own. I usually offer them anyway, since it is easy to do so and they are cheap; but they should always be provided (free-choice) to birds confined to the winter housing. Grit and shell are available at any farm co-op or feed supply.

Watering

Chickens must have fresh water available at all times. Waterers come in a number of designs. Choose a type which minimizes the surface area exposed, so the water will remain as clean and litter-free as possible. Placing it above floor level on a stand will also help minimize contamination with litter. Guard against wet spots under or around the waterer. (Pathogens are more likely to grow in wet than in dry litter.) If wet spots do develop, use a spading fork to scatter the wet material so it can dry as the chickens work it into the rest of the litter.

I recommend some form of automated watering, which saves a significant amount of time and effort even in a small flock. There are various designs of vacuum-flow and float-activated waterers. The most sanitary of all watering systems is the nipple waterer.

Of course, watering becomes a greater challenge during freezing winter weather. If electricity is available in the poultry house, there are various heating devices that can be used. Carrying the waterer into the basement at night is also an option.

Eggs

Be sure to provide sufficient nest boxes (maybe one for each seven to nine hens or so) positioned above floor level; keep them lined with plenty of clean straw; and collect eggs frequently. All these measures help keep the eggs clean and unbroken, and reduce the likelihood of egg eating, a bad habit which - once established - is difficult to break.

I prefer not to wash eggs if they come perfectly clean from the nest. (They actually keep better if not washed.) If they have even the slightest trace of litter or - yes, occasionally - poop, I wash them with a half and half solution of water and vinegar, which dissolves the smear and has a sanitizing effect.

Fresh eggs do not need to be refrigerated if eaten within a few days. Just set them out of direct sunlight where it is not too warm. (Remember, in nature the mother bird doesn't refrigerate her eggs. They remain perfectly viable for up to two weeks as she day by day assembles her clutch before starting incubation.)

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