Wheat sowing over 85 percent area completed in Punjab

Wheat sowing over 14 million acres has been completed in Punjab which is 85 percent of the targeted 16 million acres to produce 19 million tons of wheat during 2013-14 Rabi season, Director General Agriculture Extension Services Dr Anjum Ali told Business Recorder here on Wednesday.
He said the wheat sowing has been going on according to schedule in the province that produces 80 percent of the total staple food of the nation. Director General Pakistan Meteorological Department Dr Arif Mahmood told this scribe that mainly dry and cold weather is expected in plains of Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan and KPK till 16th December 2013. He advised farmers of irrigated plains of Punjab, Sindh & Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to complete sowing of wheat crop before 15th December to get maximum yield. In case of late sowing in December, the recommended varieties should be cultivated to minimise the expected loss in yield.
Dr Mahmood said wheat sowing is in progress in most of the irrigated areas. Farmers of irrigated areas should irrigate the crop as per requirement due to dry weather prevailing in most of the irrigated agricultural plains of the country. Normally first irrigation is given after 20-25 days after sowing.
Meanwhile, the Indus River System Authority is releasing 1,06,400 cusecs water from the reservoirs and run of the river water for power generation and crop irrigation. 50,000 cusecs water is being released from the Tarbela dam, 40,000 cusecs from Mangla Dam, 8,700 cusecs from river Kabul and River Chanab 7,700 cusecs.

News Source: Business Recorder News Collected: agrinfobank.com Team

Farmers asked to keep fields clear of foliage

Plants, trees, wheat and other crops of the seasons have begun dropping off their leaves, as the Met office on Monday asked the farmers to collect the decaying foliages to help the standing crops go growing unharmed. "Falling of leaves has started from trees beside wheat & other Rabi crops. Farmers should collect leaves from the crops as early as possible so that normal growth may not be disturbed," the Met office advised the farmers.
It said wheat crop is in early growing stages in most of the rain-crop (barani) areas of the country. "Farmers of barani areas, obtaining crop water through tube wells are advised to schedule the irrigation according to the expected weather in the next 10 days".
Wheat cultivation is in progress in most of the irrigated areas, it said, adding that "the farmers of irrigated areas should irrigate the crop as per requirement due to dry weather prevailing in most of the irrigated agricultural plains of the country. Normally first irrigation is given after 20-25 days after sowing".
Farmers of irrigated plains of Punjab, Sindh and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa are advised to complete sowing of wheat crop before Dec 15 to get maximum yield. "In case of late sowing in December, the recommended varieties should be cultivated to minimise the expected loss in yield," it advised.
Weather is expected to remain mainly dry and cold in most parts of Punjab especially in upper parts in the next 10 days, the office forecast.
In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, it said mainly dry and cold weather (very cold in upper parts) is expected, however, rain/thunderstorm with light snow over the hills may occur at a few places of Malakand division on Dec 2 and mid of the next week.
In Sindh and Balochistan mainly dry weather is expected, the office said.
In Gilgit-Baltistan, it said, mainly dry/partly cloudy and very cold weather is expected in most parts of the province. However, it said, rain/thunderstorm with light snow over the hills may occur at isolated places on Dec 2 and mid of the next week. The office said weather in Kashmir is likely to remain mainly dry/partly cloudy and very cold weather.

News Source Business Recorder   News Collected: agrinfobank.com Team

Soil management Practices

Besides storing more carbon and making more efficient use of nitrogen, good soil management will provide economic benefits through increased productivity, more efficient use of nutrients, and improved air and water quality.

Agricultural soils act as efficient repositories for carbon, but under certain conditions soils also release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. Plants fix atmospheric carbon into foliage and roots, which eventually becomes soil organic matter. Soil organic matter is fundamental to healthy soil.

While much of the stored carbon is released back into the atmosphere when plants decay, some of it remains trapped in the soil as organic matter. Soil conditions and management will determine how much carbon is stored at any one time.

Through denitrification and other processes soils also release excess nitrogen into the atmosphere as nitrous oxide and nitrogen gas.

The following farming practices can reduce the amount of greenhouse gas emissions from soils.

"Low till" (Conservation tillage)

In conservation tillage, crops are directly planted into the previous year’s stubble, with minimum or no tillage. This practice not only reduces fossil fuel consumption, but also increases soil organic matter (compared to conventional tillage*) that otherwise would be emitted as carbon dioxide. Conservation tillage, along with reduced use of summerfallow, can store from 0.3 to 0.5 tonnes of carbon per hectare per year in the soil, depending on weather and moisture conditions.

As well, research from the University of Saskatchewan has shown there’s more available organic nitrogen in long-term zero tillage fields than in fields tilled using conventional methods.

Choosing to seed with narrow, low disturbance openers (knives or discs) has the further advantage of minimal seedbed disturbance. Crops seeded with low disturbance disc and knife openers have shown improved production and fewer weeds over crops seeded with higher disturbance openers, such as spoons or sweeps.

Additional benefits of conservation tillage include enhanced water infiltration, moisture conservation, reduced labour requirements, and less runoff and soil erosion due to wind and water.

Crop rotations

The best crop rotations should not only effectively manage nutrients and reduce pest problems, but also improve soil quality. While the environmental benefits of certain crop rotations are clear, market constraints may limit which crops are included. Some suggestions:

• The addition of legume crops in crop rotations will fix nitrogen. Perennial legumes, such as alfalfa, increase soil organic matter, while the residues contain nitrogen, which can easily be broken down to be used by subsequent crops.
• Crops with high nitrogen requirements, such as corn or cereals, used as a follow-up to legumes will capitalize on the fixed nitrogen in the soil.
• Planting a winter cereal or another cover crop after harvest (if timing permits) will help remove surplus nitrogen. Cover crops also store nutrients for the crops that follow them, as well as reduce weeds, host beneficial insects, and improve soil quality.
• Forage production is a further way to reduce emissions. Increasing forage production not only increases soil organic carbon, but it also uses surplus soil nutrients, reducing the risk of nitrogen losses, including denitrification.
• Crop mixtures, such as alfalfa-bromegrass, use soil nitrogen more efficiently and reduce the potential for nitrogen losses to the environment.

Marginal land

Marginal lands require the same inputs as productive land, but produce lower yields and profit. By planting these marginal or fragile lands to perennial cover, farmers can improve profit margins, create a carbon sink and provide natural habitat.

The best solution for flood-prone areas or lands with excess moisture may be restoring them back to wetlands. Wetlands can remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, reduce downstream flooding, help to clean water and provide wildlife habitat.

Stubble burning

On average, more than 90 percent of all carbon in crop residues is lost (mostly as carbon dioxide) when it is burned. Alternate uses for cereal straw include chopping and spreading back onto the fields, baling, grazing, and using for bio-energy feedstock and bio-fibre.

Soil drainage

Since saturated soils during the growing season are more prone to denitrification and producing nitrous oxide emissions, improving drainage encourages efficient crop growth and uptake of nitrogen fertilizer.

Drainage improvements may include enhanced surface drainage, installation of tile drains, or the use of trees, shrubs and other perennial crops to remove excess water. In some cases, it may be more appropriate to store water and refrain from annual crop production and fertilizer applications.

Soil cover

Crop residues left on the surface help prevent soil erosion.  Manitoba Agriculture recommends that 60 percent of the soil surface should be covered with crop residue in the fall to prevent erosion.

Summerfallow

Summerfallow is already a dying practice in Manitoba. But it is worth noting that besides leaving fields susceptible to wind and soil erosion, soils that were frequently summerfallowed usually had reduced soil organic matter compared to continuously cropped soils.

Source:http://www.climatechangeconnection.org

Methods of Sowing

Seeds are sown directly in the field (seed bed) or in the nursery (nursery bed) where seedlings are raised and transplanted later. Direct seeding may be done by
(a) Broadcasting (b) Dibbling
(c) Drilling (d) Sowing behind the country plough
(e) Planting (f) Transplanting
(a) Broad casting- Broad casting is the scattering or spreading of the seeds on the soil, which may or may not be incorporated into the soil. Broadcasting of seeds may be done by hand, mechanical spreader or aeroplane. Broadcasting is the easy, quick and cheap method of seeding. The difficulties observed in broadcasting are uneven distribution, improper placement of seeds and less soil cover and compaction. As all the seeds are not placed in uniform density and depth, there is no uniformity of germination, seedling vigour and establishment. It is mostly suited for closely spaced and small seeded crops.
(b) Dibbling - It is the placing of seeds in a hole or pit made at a predetermined spacing and depth with a dibbler or planter or very often by hand. Dibbling is laborious, time consuming and expensive compared to broadcasting, but it requires less seeds and, gives rapid and uniform germination with good seedling vigour.
(c) Drilling - It is a practice of dropping seeds in a definite depth, covered with soil and compacted.Sowing implements like seed drill or seed cum fertilizer drill are used. Manures, fertilizers, soil
amendments, pesticides, etc. may be applied along with seeds. Seeds are drilled continuously or at regular intervals in rows. It requires more time, energy and cost, but maintains uniform population per unit area. Rows are set according to the requirements.
(d) Sowing behind the country plough - It is an operation in which seeds are placed in the plough furrow either continuously or at required spacing by a man working behind a plough. When the
plough takes the next adjacent furrow, the seeds in the previous furrow are closed by the soil closing the furrow. Depth of sowing is adjusted by adjusting the depth of the plough furrow.
(e) Planting - Placing seeds or seed material firmly in the soil to grow.
(f) Transplanting - Planting seedlings in the main field after pulling out from the nursery. It is done to reduce the main field duration of the crops facilitating to grow more number of crops in an
year. It is easy to give extra care for tenderseedlings. For small seeded crops like rice and ragi which require shallow sowing and frequent irrigation for proper germination,raising nursery is
the easiest way.

How to Maintain a Tractor

Edited by BR, Sondra C, Kitsune, Martyn P

Correctly maintaining a tractor will add years to its useful life. However, there are some basic differences in maintaining a tractor from other vehicles. Also, since there are many different types and brands of tractors, there is no comprehensive maintenance guide that's universally applicable to all types of tractors, but following these steps should help.

Steps

1.  
   
   The Owner's Manual should be your first source of information
   Study your owner's manual. The manufacturer has specific instructions for basic care of your equipment, and they have the expertise to give you the best advice on how to do it. If you don't have a manual, get one. Here are some items you should find in the Owner's Manual:
   • Maintenance Schedule. This will tell you the intervals for routine maintenance, including chassis lubrication, engine, transmission, and hydraulic oil change, filter changes, and other maintenance items.
   • 
     Tractor hydraulic oil has different viscosities and additives, so check the label before you buy.
     Specifications. This should be a table telling you the type of fluid for the transmission, hydraulic system, brakes, and engine coolant, as well as their capacities. Tire inflation, bolt torques, and other information may be found under specifications or other sections of the manual.
   • Location of lubricant points (grease fittings), fluid check dipsticks or sight glasses, and instructions on cleaning air and fuel filters.
   • Basic operating instructions and other information specific to your tractor.
   
   
2.  
   
   Some tools required for normal tractor maintenance
   Obtain tools. Tractor maintenance requires numerous wrenches and other tools in larger sizes than for automobile maintenance, so plan to buy or borrow the tools you need.
3.  
   
   Protect the tractor from the elements.
   Protect the tractor from the elements. Because most smaller farm (or garden) tractors do not have a cabin to protect the seat, instrument panel, and metal components, it is a good idea to store it in a shed or garage. If you can't do this, keep rain out of the exhaust system, and cover the seat and instruments.
4.  
   Check fluids regularly. Tractor usage is measured in hours, not miles, so the amount of use may be deceptive, and leaking components may cause failure of expensive parts. Refer to the owner's manual to determine how each fluid is checked.
   •
   
   A typical tractor engine oil dipstick
   Check the engine oil.
   •
   
   Transmission filler cap/dipstick assembly, located on the top of the gearbox
   Check the transmission fluid.
   • Check the coolant in the radiator.
   • Check the hydraulic oil.
   • Check the battery electrolyte.
5.  
   
   Check tire inflation.
   Check tire inflation. Because of the shape, low inflation is not always obvious. Rear tires normally have between 12 and 20 PSI inflation pressure, the front tires may have up to 32 PSI. The back tires on farm tractors should be filled with ballast, especially if you are pulling an implement where maximum traction is required. Usually this ballast is water with an antifreeze solution added.
6.  
   
   View of the fan belt and upper radiator hose with the tractor hood up
   Keep an eye on belts and hoses. If your tractor is equipped with a hydraulic system, it has high pressure hoses and/or tubing, and failure of this fluid conduit can cause component (hydraulic pump) failure, loss of steering, or other problems. If a hose (or belt) appears damaged, worn, or cracked, replace it. If fittings or connections are leaking, tighten them or replace the seals.
7.  
   
   Tractors have independent rear wheel brakes to assist in turning. Note two pedals.
   Keep the brake linkages lubricated, and make sure the brakes are adjusted equally. Many tractors have mechanical brakes, operated by a linkage and cam system instead of a master/slave fluid system. These brakes are located on the rear axles, and work independently, so that they may be used to steer the tractor in tight corners or to reverse the direction of travel. The brake pedals will interlock for road travel, so that one pedal is not accidentally engaged by itself, causing the tractor to spin while traveling at a high speed.
8.  
   Watch the gauges. Keep an eye on the temperature, oil pressure, and tachometer.
   • The temperature gauge should be marked with a normal operating range, but any time the indicator says the temperature is over 220 degrees F, the engine is running hot.
   • If equipped with a diesel engine, the oil pressure should be between 40 and 60 PSI.
   • The tachometer tells how many revolutions per minute the crankshaft is turning. Diesel engines are designed to operate at lower RPM and higher torque than gasoline engines, and "over revving" your engine, or operating it at maximum RPMs is not recommended.
9.  
   Check the filters regularly. Most systems on tractors are equipped with filters to protect against dirt, water, or other contaminants that could cause failure of the components.
   • 
      See-through Engine fuel filter to allow you to see water in the fuel filter bowl
     Check the fuel filter for accumulated water. Most diesel engines have a water separating filter, since diesel fuel attracts moisture.
   • 
     Turbocharged diesels use tremendous amounts of air, which can cause filters to clog quickly in dusty conditions.
     Check the air filter often. Tractors are often operated in very dusty conditions, and in some cases, the filters must be cleaned daily or weekly. Clean the air filter with a shop vacuum or with compressed air, never by washing it. Replace the air filter when it cannot be cleaned satisfactorily, or if the filter is damaged.
     
     
   
   
10.  
    
    Raise the hood to check the radiator for accumulated debris.
    Check the radiator screen. Tractors are often operated in conditions where debris may accumulate on the radiator, so they usually have a front screen or grill to prevent plant matter, insects, or pollen from clogging the radiator.
11.  
    
    Not all of your tractor's grease fittings are this easy to locate.
    Lubricate your tractor. Tractors have many more moving parts that require greasing than do automobiles. If you see a part that moves, look for a grease fitting, and grease it. Use a grease cartridge pressure gun, clean the fitting, attach the hose, and pump grease until the associated seal begins to expand, or grease is seen oozing out of the attachment you are lubricating. Look for grease fittings on steering components, brake and clutch linkages, and three-point hitch pivot points.
    • Older tractors require specific lubricants in the gear boxes. Often, the hydraulic system and the transaxle share fluid, and using the wrong fluid can cause serious damage.
12.  
    Do not overload your tractor. If you are using your tractor for cultivation or mowing, it should have a recommended size attachment for the job you are doing. As an example, do not pull an eight foot mower with a 35 horsepower tractor.
13.  
    Keep your tractor clean This will help you to spot damaged components and leaks, and see if trash or debris is causing problems.

Source

Dusky cotton bug, Oxycarenus hyalinipennis

Common Name : Dusky cotton bug Gaa4YxdnRpjgB4KjA13v

Scientific Name : Oxycarenus hyalipennis

Family : Lygaeidae

Order ; Hemiptera

Insect Description:

Eggs  are  cigar  shaped  and  whitish  immediate  to oviposition.  They  turn  pale  then  to  pink  before  hatching. Early instar  nymph  is  about  2.5  mm long  with  its  rostrum  extending  the  abdomen.  They  are  orange  in colour when about to  moult. After the  first  moult the nymphs  become  reddish  brown  then  become  darker after  each  moult. Adults  are  4-5  mm  elongated  with  pointed heads,  dusky  brown  with  dirty  white  transparent  wings and  black  spots  on  fore  wings  and  having  deep  red  legs.

Nature of Damage:

Nymphs  and  adults  suck the sap gregariously from immature seeds which do not  ripe,  remain  lightweight.  Adults  found  in the  lint  get  crushed  during  ginning   emitting   bad odour  and  stain  the  lint.
Symptoms:
Being  associated  with t he  open  bolls,   t hey cause   nuisance   to workers  during  cotton picking.   Discol or ation  oft he  lint   wit h  large  number of   nymphs  and  adults  of brown  to  black  colour   are common.
Management

• Spray phosphamidon 100 EC@250 ml/ha

Fruit and Vegetables Harvest Chart

Following Fruit and Vegetables Harvest Chart Shows harvesting time of all major fruits and Vegetables of Pakistan.

Rabi Crops List

The crops that are sown in the winter season are called Rabi crops. (also known as the "winter crop") in Pakistan and India. The Rabi means, when the crop is harvested.Crops that are grown in the winter season, from November to April are called Rabi Crops.Some of the important rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard.

 Maize (Zea mays, L)

 Lucerne (Hedicago sativa)

 Cumin (Cuminum cyminum, L)

 Coriender (Coriandrum sativum, L)

 Wheat (Triticum vulgare, Vill)

 Fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum, L)

 Gram (Cicer arientinum)

 Onion (Allium cepa, L)

 Mustard (Brassica juncea, L)

 Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum, Mill)

 Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare, Miller)

 Potato (Solanum tuberosum)

 Isabgol (Plantago ovata. Fors)

Oat (Avena sativa)

Rabbit Farming for Meat

To fulfill the food demand for growing population, we have to find out different ways of food production. The rabbit known as "Micro-Livestock" can be a great source of food production. 

There is a great opportunity of rabbit farming in our country. Rabbit needs small place and less food for survival. Rabbit meat contains high ratio of protein, energy, calcium and vitamin than other species of animal.

The cholesterol fat and sodium is less than other meat. The meat of rabbit is very testy, easily consumed and all religious people can eat it. They grows very fast and the female rabbit produce 2-8 baby every time.

They eat very low quality food and make high quality of meat. Raising rabbit can be a great income source to the unemployed people and landless farmers. So, we have to raise rabbit to meet the demand of protein as well as to reduce poverty from our society.
We generally raise rabbit as pet. But if we raise them commercially then it will be a great source of income and a smart way of employment. The annual demand of meat in our country is about six million tons. But only one million tons of meat produced in our country, rest of the meat we import from foreign country.

According to the demand only 15-20 percent of animal protein comes from the livestock which is very less compared to the requirement. Further, this demand is increasing with population growth.

An adult person needs 120 grams of meat daily. But we get only 20 grams on an average. So, we can consider rabbit farming as a potential direction of animal protein. It is very easy to maintain rabbit farm than other animals. Every person of the family can take care of it.

Species of Rabbit:
There are many species of rabbit are available in our country. Among those Dark Gray (internal), Fox, Dutch, New Zealand White, New Zealand Black, New Zealand Red, Belgium White and Chinchilla are most favorite.

Rabbit Meat Quality
In many research it has found that, young rabbit meat is very high quality than the adult rabbit meat. And the meat quality of male rabbit is high than female rabbit meat.

The quantity of cholesterol and lipids increases and reduces protein with the increase of the rabbit age. On the other hand, female rabbit meat contains more lipid, fat and cholesterol.

Benefit of Rabbit Farming:
There are many benefits of farming rabbit. The main benefits of raising rabbit according to our country economic and ecological condition are described bellow.

.The rabbit is a very fast breeding animal.
.Their food converting rate is better than other animals.
.One female rabbit can give birth 2-8 baby rabbit at a time.
.Rabbit can be raised in a short place.
.More production can be made in little cost.
.Rabbit meat is very nutritious.
.In meat production it has a place after poultry.
.Wast material of the kitchen, grass, plant leaves etc. are favorite food of rabbit. So, we can raise them using this commodities.
.Family labor can be successfully applied to rabbit farming.

Method of Raising Rabbit:
With a small investment we can make house for rabbit in our house yard or in building roof and start rearing rabbit. We can make house for rearing rabbit in two methods.

Deep Litter Method:
This method is suitable for less amount of rabbit. The floor should well made concrete. 4-5 inches depth litter should make with husk, rice straw or wood lath. In this method at most 30 rabbit can be raised. The male rabbit should keep in a separate room from the female. In this method the possibilities of being affected by diseases is high. Moreover, it is very difficult to manage the rabbit in this system.

Cage Method:
To keep rabbit commercially this method is the best. In this system the rabbit are kept in a cage made with iron plate. This cage is very useful for raising more rabbit. In every cage it have to have the facilities of necessary space. Male and female rabbit should keep separate from each other. They should keep in same rood when thy need mating to produce baby rabbit.

Food Management
Food consuming rate and nutrient requirements varies according to the rabbit age and species. For proper nutrition of an adult rabbit its food should contain 17-18 percent crude protein, 14 percent fiber, 7 percent minerals and 2700 kilo calorie/kg of metabolic energy.
Green leafy vegetables, seasonal vegetable, spinach greens, carrots, Muller, cucumber, green grass and vegetable wast can easily used as the food of rabbit. For commercial purpose poultry food can be served to feed the rabbit. Accordance with proper food management they should supply sufficient water according to their demand. Thus a farmer can be success in rabbit farming.
Courtesy: pakagri.blogspot.com

Mushroom: A Hidden Food Source for Hungry World

Mushrooms with other fungi are something special in the living world, being neither plants nor animals. They have been placed in a kingdom of their own called the kingdom of Myceteae. But what are mushrooms? The word mushroom may mean different things to different people and countries. It has emerged that specialised studies and the economic value of mushrooms and their products had reached a point where a clear definition of the term “mushroom” was warranted.

In a broad sense “Mushroom is a macrofungus with a distinctive fruiting body, which can be either epigeous or hypogeous and large enough to be seen with naked eye and to be picked by hand” Thus, mushrooms need not be basidiomycetes, nor aerial, nor fleshy, nor edible. Mushrooms can be ascomycetes, grow underground, have a non-fleshy texture and need not be edible. This definition is not a perfect one but can be accepted as a workable term to estimate the number of mushrooms on the earth. The most common type of mushrooms is umbrella shaped with a pileus (cap) and a stipe (stem) i.e. Lentinula edodes. Other species additionally have a volva (cup) i.e. Volvariella volvacea or an annulus (ring) i.e. Agarius campestris or with both of them i.e. Amanita muscaria. Furthermore, some mushrooms are in the form of pliable cups; others round like golf balls. Some are in the shape of small clubs; some resemble coral; others are yellow or orange jelly-like globs; and some even very much resembles the human ear. In fact, there is a countless variety of forms.

The structure that we call a mushroom is in reality only the fruiting body of the fungus. The vegetative part of the fungus, called the mycelium, comprises a system of branching threads and cord-like strands that branch out through soil, compost, wood log or other lignocellulosic material on which the fungus may be growing. After a period of growth and under favourable conditions, the established (matured) mycelium could produce the fruit structure which we call the mushroom. Accordingly mushrooms can be grouped into four categories: (1) those which are fleshy and edible fall into the edible mushroom category, e.g., Agaricus bisporus; (2) mushrooms which are considered to have medicinal applications, are referred to as medicinal mushrooms, e.g., Ganoderma lucidum; (3) those which are proven to be, or suspected of being poisonous are named as poisonous mushrooms, e.g., Amanita phalloides; and (4) a miscellaneous category which includes a large number of mushrooms whose properties remain less well defined, which may tentatively be grouped together as ‘other mushrooms’. Certainly, this approach of classifying of mushrooms is not absolute and not mutually exclusive. Many kinds of mushrooms are not only edible, but also possess tonic and medicinal qualities. Mushrooms are devoid of leaves, and of chlorophyll-containing tissues. This renders them incapable of photosynthetic food production. Yet, they grow, and they produce new biomass. How? For their survival, for their growth, and for their metabolism, they rely on organic matter synthesized by the green plants around us, including organic products contained in agricultural crop residues. The organic materials, on which mushrooms derive their nutrition, are referred to as substrates. Mushrooms are a unique biota which assembles their food by secreting degrading enzymes and decompose the complex food materials present in the biomass where they grow, to generate simpler compounds, which they then absorb, and transform into their own peculiar tissues. These substrate materials are usually by-products from industry, households and agriculture and are usually considered as wastes. And these wastes, if carelessly disposed of in the surrounding environment by dumping or burning, will lead to environmental pollution and consequently cause health hazards. However, they are actually resources in the wrong place at a particular time and mushroom cultivation can harness this waste/resource for its own beneficial advantage.

Mushrooms lack true roots. How then are they anchored into the substrates where we find them? This is affected by their tightly interwoven thread-like hyphae, which also colonise the substrates, degrade their biochemical components, and siphon away the hydrolysed organic compounds for their own nutrition.

Modern techniques for production of seedless vegetables

Muhammad Umair Javid

MS.C Scholar, Institute of Horticultural Sciences, University of Agriculture Faisalabad

Email:umairjavid286@gmail.com

Cell: 00923336629839

A plant is considered to be seedless if it is able to produce a fruit with no seed, traces of aborted seeds or amuch-reduced number of seeds (Voraquauxet al.,2000). Induction of seedlessness in fruits and vegetables is being appreciated due to customer demand, improve aesthetic value and ease in preparation(Pandolfini, 2009). The shelf life of seedless vegetables is expected to be longer than seeded fruit because seeds produce hormones that trigger senescence. This effect has been observed in watermelons, in which seeds are the origin of fruit deterioration(Lukyanenko, 1991). Studies have also shown that seedless tomato fruits are tastier than the seeded variety. Moreover, seedless tomato fruits have been reported to possess 1% more dry-matter content, more sugars,less acidity, less cellulose and considerably high soluble solidsas compared to seeded fruits (Lukyanenko, 1991).

Parthenocarpy, literally meaning virgin fruit, is the natural, artificially induced, or genetically modified production of fruit without fertilization. In the absence of pollination, parthenocarpic plants will set seedless fruit (Gustafson, 1942). Thus, parthenocarpy can be regarded as a primary requirement for the production of seedless fruit(Pandolfiniet al., 2002).

Traditionally seedless watermelonsare produced by crossing a tetraploid (4× = 44) inbredline as the female parent with a diploid (2× = 22)inbred line as the male parent of the hybrid. The reciprocal cross (diploid female parent) does not produce seeds. The hybrid is a triploid (3× = 33) and sterile (Besteet al., 1998). Howeversome problems still exist producing the tetraploid parental line (by treating seedlings with colchicine), finding compatibility between the diploid pollinator and the tetraploid mother plant. Consequently, these difficulties required more time periodfor induction of seedlessness. Moreover Triploid seeds have a thicker seed coat, which decreases their vigour and germability(Yamamuroet al., 1978).Because the current production methods of seedless vegetables are associated withshortcomings, it is necessary to develop a new method to produce seedless vegetables in Short time which would be more convenient for and acceptable to consumer (Sugiyama and Morishita, 2002).

Among the modern existing techniques irradiation is an effective method for introducing nearly complete to complete seedlessness in vegetables. Seedless watermelon can be produced by pollination with partially functional pollens irradiated with gamma rays and x rays at the dose of 600 and 800 Gy (Moussa and Salem, 2010). In cucumber male pollen were irradiated with 0,100,200,300 and 400 Gy caused seedless fruit development, However fruit set percentage was not affected (Lotfiet al., 1999).

Another approach for eliciting seedlessness involves biotechnological research. Auxins andGAs plays important roles in parthenocarpic fruit development. Increased levels of these hormones in the ovary or ovule can substitute for pollination and can trigger fruit development, Researchers have obtained seedless parthenocarpic fruit by elevating the auxin levels in ovules of transgenic eggplant (Solanummelongena L.) and cucumber (Carmi et al., 2003; Goetz, et al., 2006; Yin, 2006).

Genetic approach for the production of seedless fruits is based on the rolBgene of Agrobacterium rhizogenesthat alters auxin sensitivity when expressed in plant. The rolbgene was introduced in tomato under the control of an ovary and young fruit specific promoter. In the rolB transgenic tomato plants, fruits developed without pollination and therefore were seedless (Carmi, et al., 2003).Seedleesnessalso developedby genetically modified parthenocarpic tomato plants(Rotinoet al., 2005).

Conclusion

Traditional polyploidy has been is in use to develop parthenocarpy (seedless) vegetables However, due to different drawbacks regarding commercial feasibility, this method is being discouraged. There is need to develop new technologies for the production of seedless vegetables by using less time to meet the consumer requirment, presently modern techniques are being in usedinclude, Irradiation, Mutation breeding, use of phytoharmones and transgenic approaches for the induction of Seedlessness in vegetables, However several others are yet to be explored.

References:
Beste, E., D.M.Caron, G. Dively, K. Everts, E. Kee, S.D. Walker, J. Whalen, J. Windsor and T. Wooten. 1998. Watermelon Production Guide for Delaware and Maryland, New York, Ithaca. Cornell Cooperative Extension.
Carmi, N., Y. Salts, B. Dedicova, S. Shabtai and R. Barg. 2003. Induction of parthenocarpy in tomato via specific expression of therolB gene in the ovary. Planta 217:726–735.
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Cultural Methods of Vegetable Disease Control

Most vegetables are susceptible to one or more diseases. You can, therefore, anticipate disease problems sooner or later in your vegetable garden. By following good cultural practices and taking preventive measures, your chances of garden failure due to disease problems can be reduced.

Garden site selection is important to pro-duce high yields of healthy vegetables. Trying to grow vegetables on a poor site is one of the main causes of garden failure. Although few people will have ideal garden sites, they should select the best site available.

Garden sites should not be within the drip line of large trees. Avoid planting near black walnut trees, since they produce a root sub-stance that is toxic to certain vegetables, especially tomatoes. The garden site should be slightly sloped to provide good water and air drainage through the soil.

Excess soil moisture can damage vegetable roots, as well as promote root diseases caused by certain fungi. Air movement through the garden is also important to help dry the foliage, thus reducing the chances of fungal and bacterial infections. Garden sites with good air drainage are less likely to be damaged by late frosts.

Most garden vegetables require full sunlight for maximum production. Sunlight also hastens drying of foliage. Soil tillage should be done early enough, prior to planting, to allow decomposition of raw organic matter such as manure or green plant material. This usually requires about six weeks under warm temperatures and longer at low temperatures. Organic material that has not decomposed can be a source of disease organisms and can also promote development of certain diseases such as root and stem rots. Applying nitrogen fertilizer before plowing or tilling green plant material into the soil will hasten its de-composition.

Crop rotation will help prevent the buildup of disease-causing organisms in the soil. Some disease causing organisms affect one vegetable or group of vegetables, but may not affect an-other. Several vegetables of the same family, such as squash, cucumbers and cantaloupes, may be affected by the same disease. Therefore, it is not a good practice to grow plants of the same family in rotation. Table 1 gives crop groupings for rotation to control soil-borne diseases. At least a three-year rotation is suggested for vegetable crops.

Sanitation is very important in controlling vegetable diseases. Many disease-causing organ-isms survive the winter in plant debris, cull fruit or plant stubble left in the garden. Any practice that will eliminate these overwintering sites for fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes will reduce the occurrence of disease problems the following year. Removal or plowing-under of crop stubble and trash helps destroy overwintering populations of disease organisms. Some disease-causing organisms are able to survive the off season on contaminated equipment or containers. Equipment that has been used in disease-infested vegetable gardens or containers used in handling diseased vegetables should be disinfested before being used again.

Disease-free seed and transplants are a must in vegetable production. Seed should not be saved from diseased plants. Always buy seed from a reputable dealer, since you normally cannot tell from their external appearance if seed are contaminated with disease-causing organisms.

Certain geographical areas, such as the arid western states, can produce disease-free seed because of climatic conditions. Seed from these areas should be stipulated in your seed orders. Gardeners starting their crop from transplants should, likewise, insist on disease-free plants.

Seed treatments vary, depending on the crop as well as the disease to be controlled. Some disease-causing organisms are carried on the surface of seed and can be controlled by a simple fungicide treatment. Fungicides are not effective against those organisms carried beneath the seed coat.

Fungicides applied to seed also give young seedlings some protection from soil-borne disease organisms as they germinate and emerge. Such treatments, however, do not control organisms that attack the plant after the seedling stage.

A seed treatment is usually applied by the company from which the seed is purchased. Home-grown seed can be treated at home with relative ease. Thiram or Captan fungicides can be used as seed treatments on most vegetable crops. Use these protectant fungicides according to instructions on the label. For small quantities of seed, such as packets, apply sufficient fungicide to coat the seed surface. Simply place a small quantity (comparable to the size of a match head) in the packet, reclose and shake to coat the seed with the fungicide.

Planting dates can be an effective tool in reducing diseases of vegetables. Okra, for in-stance, requires warm soil for good germination and growth. If planted when the soil is still cold, the seeds will rot, or if they do germinate, they will probably develop damping-off or stem rot. Some crops, such as corn and beans, should be planted as early as the weather permits to escape severe virus infections. Aphids that transmit viruses are usually at lower population levels early in the season.

Mulches can be used to conserve moisture, keep fruit clean and prevent diseases. Mulches reduce fruit rot on crops, such as strawberries, tomatoes, squash, cucumbers and melons by preventing direct contact with the soil. Mulching will reduce splashing of soil onto lower fruit and foliage by rain.

Staking or trellising tomatoes, pole or half runner beans and cucumbers will prevent soil contact with the foliage and fruit. Air circulation will be better if these plants are trellised, thus promoting better drying of foliage and reducing diseases. Pesticides can be more effectively applied to trellised plants.

Watering can influence the development and severity of many foliage diseases. Wet foliage is favorable for the development of most diseases. To reduce infections, apply irrigation water to the soil rather than the foliage. If water must be applied to the foliage, then it should be done in late morning or mid-afternoon to allow the foliage to dry before evening.

Maintaining uniform soil moisture can re-duce problems such as blossom end rot of pe-pers and tomatoes. Excessive soil moisture can result in increased root and stem rot diseases. It is best to work in the garden when the foliage is dry to reduce disease spread. Bacterial diseases of tomatoes, beans and other crops are readily spread on hands and clothing of workers when the foliage is wet.

Use of resistant varieties is one of the most economical ways of controlling vegetable diseases. Resistant varieties should be used in areas where diseases are present or where the soil is known to be infested with disease-causing organisms. Resistant varieties should be used even when rotation is practiced.

Weeds Control in Upcoming Era

Asad Manzoor
Department of Agriculture and Agribusiness Management University of Karachi
asad@gardener.com

In the upcoming era, weed control methods currently being intensively researched will allow prolonged weed control options away from herbicides and mechanical methods in agricultural, horticultural and nonagricultural weed management. Biological control by insects and plant disease producing micro organisms, foretelling modeling of weed/crop relations, and the use of herbicide antidotes, more viable crops, allelopathy, and genetic engineering/modify will become more widespread as their consistency is enhanced.

The generally purpose of additional approaches is to find out innovative, more environmentally suitable and friendly weed management methods/techniques that not only control weeds successfully, but advance our understanding and knowledge of weed ecology/biology and permit us more sustainable management of the agro ecosystem. Biological control of weeds by insects and plant disease organisms has had significant achievement in several weed management situations, and current research will direct to supplementary uses of natural agents. Significant biological research involves the potential introduction of natural control species commencing an invasive weed species site of origin (Watson, 1993). The use of herbicide antidotes (Hatzios and Wu, 1996) to defend crop plants has been doing well for some herbicides in some crops—for example, chloroacteamide herbicides in corn and sorghum. One of the supreme recent changes in weed control has occurred through the genetic transformation of crops with herbicide-resistant genes and the incorporation of herbicide resistance through conventional breeding. In 1999 and 2000, more than 50% of the U.S. soybean acreage and more than 30% of the corn acreage was planted to cultivars resistant to one of several herbicides. Genetic engineering offers marvelous potential in all areas of weed science for enhanced understanding of plants and of weed control. Genetic engineering, along with current advances in sequencing the genome of Arabidopsis (and in the future, other plants), will allow a clear understanding of specific gene function.

Such knowledge will authorize gene manipulation and modification in our agricultural activities, such as the finding of genes that add to weediness, competitiveness, allelopathy, dormancy, or a plant’s being a perennial, with functions (Weller et al., 2001; Gressel, 2000). Genes of interest in weed control methods once revealed may then be engineered into crops or used to manipulate weeds to achieve a wanted effect in crop productivity and reduced weed influences. One area in especially where genetic engineering may play a role is allelopathy. Allelopathy (Rizvi and Rizvi, 1992) results from any direct or indirect inhibitory or stimulatory effect by one plant (including microorganisms) on another through the production and release into the surroundings of a chemical compound. Although no marketable breakthroughs have yet occurred in engineering plants to produce higher concentration/amount of allelochemicals, rather a few such genes have been recognized in Arabidopsis. Genetic engineering of crop plants or cover crops with genes for allelochemicals could allow key strides in rising plants helpful in weed management. The future for weed control is thrilling, as there are many opportunities for challenging fundamental and applied approaches for weed management in our environment (Hall et al., 2000).

References:

Gressel, J. 2000. Molecular biology of weed control. Transgenic Res. 9:355–382.
Hall, J. C., L. L. van Eerd, S. D. Miller, M. D. K. Owen, T. S. Prather, D. L. Shaner, M. Singh, K. C. Vaughn, and S. C. Weller. 2000. Future research directions for weed science. Weed Technol. 14:647–658.
Hatzios, K. K., and J. Wu. 1996. Herbicide safeners: Tools for improving the efficacy and selectivity of herbicides. J. Envir. Sci. Health. B31:545–553.
Rizvi, S. J. H., and V. Rizvi. 1992. Allelopathy: Basic and Applied Aspects. Chapman and Hall, London.
Watson, A. K., ed. 1993. Biological Control of Weeds Handbook. WSSA Monograph Ser. #7.WSSA, Lawrence, KS.
Weller, S. C., R. A. Bressan, P. B. Goldsbrough, T. B. Fredenburg, and P. M. Hasegawa. 2001.The impact of genomics on weed management in the 21st century. Weed Sci. 49:282–289.

Resource Conserving Agri-Technologies

Authors:  Habib Ullah, Dr. Ehsanullah and Dr. Shakeel Ahmad Anjum, Associated with Agro-biology lab, department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture Faisalabad.

Pakistan is an agricultural country. Contribution of agriculture sector in the GDP is about 21%. It provides employment to 45% of country’s labor force and is source of livelihood for 60% of the rural population. It has a vital role in ensuring food security, generating overall economic growth, and reducing poverty. Our population is increasing very quickly, there is lot of population pressure on the agriculture sector. To feed this high population we are trying to enhance the agriculture productivity on the expense of land, water, labor, capital, climate and other resources ignoring the recommendations for good agricultural practices. Industrialization and urbanization has further aggravated the problem by reducing the area of production and polluting the land, water and environment which is a direct threat to our agricultural productivity. With the unbalanced use of our resources, we have created many problems such as loss of fertile land, water logging, soil salinity, erosion, pollution of above ground and underground water, habitat destruction etc. We are wasting our water resources which are decreasing rapidly. 75% area of Pakistan is dependent on irrigation water. Our mismanagement of resources is a permanent cause of the higher levels of CO₂ emissions and temperature increase leading to climate change with extreme events which are destructive to our resources and agriculture productivity, which may cause the food security issues to rise up. Food security is a global problem and especially for Pakistan, it is a great challenge. About 30% of our population is living below poverty line, and our farmer is also very poor with small land holdings. The high prices of inputs (fuel, seed, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, machinery and electricity etc) have added much to the anxiety of the farmers. Farmers are living a subsistent life. Our average crop yields are much lower than other countries despite having lot of potential. Despite of great recent progress, hunger and poverty remain widespread and agriculturally driven environmental damage is widely prevalent. The idea of agricultural sustainability centers on the need to develop technologies and practices that do not have adverse effects on environmental goods and services, and that lead to improvements in productivity per unit area and profitability. Resource Conserving Technology (RCT) is a broad term that refers to any management approach or technology that increases factor productivity including land, labor, capital and inputs. Some of these technologies are briefly described here as;

1. Bed planting of crops

It is sowing of crops on the raised leveled surface. Crop is sown on beds in lines Size of bed and furrow depth depends on the type of crop and soil. Bed planter is used for making beds and/or sowing seeds. Using either Dry or Wet sowing method crop can be sown. Irrigation is applied in the furrows. For the sowing of wheat, University of Agriculture Faisalabad has developed a university bed planter machine. It makes two beds and three furrows in the same operation; bed width is 2 feet with four rows of wheat sowing on it, and furrow width is 1 foot. The first row of wheat on bed is sown 3 inches away from either side of furrow, and 2^nd row is sown 5 inches away from first line from either side; between these two lines there is a buffer zone with width of 8 inches for the accumulation of any salt. In this planting geometry of crop, plant population is not reduced in any way. This technology saves 40-50% water, reduces the seed rate upto 10%, better weed control and 20% increase in the yield of the crop has been achieved. Similarly other crops can also be grown successfully on beds such as cotton etc.

2. Wheat residue management

After combine harvesting wheat, wheat stalks are a problem. To manage these residues Prof. Dr Ehsanullah (department of agronomy, university of agriculture Faisalabad) has developed a technology of sowing of Sesbania crop in the wheat. Presoaked seed (10-12 hours) @ 10 kg/acre is broadcasted in the standing wheat after last irrigation in the end of March or in start of April. After one month almost, wheat crop is harvested. Sesbania plants height is much smaller than wheat and escapes from combine harvester. After second irrigation to sesbania it is buried down in the soil along with wheat stalks. To accelerate the process of decomposition, half bag urea per acre can be added. This technology improves the soil health, manages wheat residues, reduces the fertilizer requirements to half and improves next crop yield.

3. Laser land leveling

It is a process of smoothing the land surface (± 2 cm) from its average elevation by using laser-equipped drag buckets, soil movers which are equipped with global positioning systems (GPS) and/or laser-guided instrumentation. To level the land, soil can be moved either by cutting or filling to create the desired slope/level. This technology gives uniform soil moisture distribution, better water application and distribution, good germination, enhanced input use efficiency, reduces weed , pest, and disease problems, reduced consumption of seeds, fertilizers, chemicals and fuel and improved yields. It may have cost and expertise constraints.

4. Direct seeding of Rice

It is a cost effective technology for the seeding of rice crop. The dry seed is drilled into the non-puddled soils with proper land leveling and weed control measures. Sowing of seeds at a depth of 2-3 cm is done with zero till, minimum till machine or broadcasting it after ploughing and leveling the field at @ 12-15kg/acre, fine and Basmati varieties will need 10-12kg/acre. The seed is then covered with the thin layer of soil to aid in proper germination and to avoid the birds damage. Soil moisture in soil should be sufficient for better germination. The sowing of crop starts from end of May to start of June. The problem of weeds is tackled by application of pre-emergence herbicides or by stale seedbed method. Next weeding can be done manually. This technology saves water by 10-30%, avoids soil degradation and plow-pan formation, saves labor, energy, fuel, seeds, and gives 10% higher yields with 10-15 days early maturation of crop.

5. Relay cropping of wheat

Relay cropping consists of interseeding the second crop into the first crop well before it is harvested. It is a form of intercropping in which both crops enjoy a short term association; first crop is at its maturity and second crop is at its initial stage. Wheat is important crop for Pakistan. Due to late maturing varieties of cotton, sowing of wheat goes upto December and January. It is experimentally proved that after November, 15 the yield of wheat is reduced @ 10-15 kg/acre/day. And with the introduction of Bt-cotton, about 7-10% area under wheat has been reduced. So both these problems are direct threat to our wheat production and self sufficiency. Relay cropping of wheat into cotton facilitates timely sowing of wheat, gives extra cotton pickings, saves the land preparation and labor charges, improves soil health and increases yields. It is economically and environmentally viable technology.

6. Zero tillage

Zero tillage is one of a set of strategies aimed to enhance and sustain farm production by conserving and improving soil, water and biological resources. Essentially, it maintains a permanent or semi-permanent organic soil cover (e.g. a growing crop or dead mulch) that protects the soil from sun, rain and wind and allows soil micro-organisms and fauna to take on the task of "tilling" and soil nutrient balancing - natural processes disturbed by mechanical tillage systems. For example, there was a lot of problem of rice stubbles for the sowing of wheat, farmers were burning the residues destroying soil or managing it by disc plough or rotavator increasing cost of production. To address this issue; new technology of Turbo seeder has been introduced. It cuts and churns the stubbles and places it between the rows of seed drilled into the soil by inverted ‘T’ shaped openers. There is no problem of operation or germination as observed in Zone disk tiller and Happy seeder. It decreases cost of production; improves soil health, saves water, labor and energy.

7. Drip irrigation

Widespread appreciation of the “global water crisis” recognizes that scarcity of clean water is affecting food production and conservation of ecosystems. By 2025 it is predicted that most developing countries will face either physical or economic water scarcity. So we have to go for efficient irrigation methods. Drip irrigation is one of them. It irrigates the plants drop by drop on the soil surface or directly into the root zone with the help of network of pump, valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters. It reduces evaporation, controls weeds, increase water and fertilizer use efficiency, saves water and fertilizer and increase yields.

8. Precision Farming

It is a farming management concept based on observing and responding to intra-field variations with the goal of optimizing returns on inputs while preserving resources. It relies on new technologies like satellite imagery, information technology, and geospatial tools. GPS, GIS and Remote sensing satellites can track the soil variability, can assess the nutritional status of the soil, disease prevalence and can predict the yields. These technologies can reduce the input rates, decrease cost of production, increase yields and can reduce the environmental concerns.

9. Solar water pumps

With the current energy crisis scenario all over the world, and especially for Pakistan it is need of the day to utilize renewable energy sources for power generation to use for different purposes. Solar water pumps get solar energy from the sun and convert it into electricity by which water pumps can run for pumping of water for irrigation purposes. It is economical and environmental friendly technology.

10. Biogas Plants

Biogas is a flammable gas produced from renewable resources that can be used in many applications as an alternative to fossil fuel-based natural gas. A biogas plant is an anaerobic digester of organic material for the purposes of treating waste and concurrently generating biogas fuel. The feedstock of this plant is the animal dung, plant material, grease food wastes etc. Biogas converts this farm waste to biogas which can be used for home cooking purpose, lightning and for pumping water for irrigation.

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